A Game-Changer for Diabetes: Polymer Delivers Insulin Painlessly Through Skin
November 25, 2025
Background
Vaccination is a procedure that assists shield people from diseases that affect them or the population of a particular region. This seeks to involve use of vaccines, substances given to the body to add immunity to bacteria and viruses to allow the body immune system to be aware of the pathogen.
Types of immunization
Active Immunization
Definition: It causes the body’s immune system to become sensitized to an antigen through administering such antigen.
Working: The immune system is given a fraction of the pathogen in one form or another, including a weakened or inactivated form, evident in vaccinating or a component of the pathogen, such as a protein subunit.
Duration: Gives lasting immunity since it activates the formation of memory cells capable of accommodating the pathogen the next time the latter is encountered.
Examples: MMR vaccines, COVID-19, and all other diseases preventive vaccines.
Passive Immunization
Definition: Assists in transmitting antibodies from an immune individual to a non-immune individual.
Working: Offers instantaneous to short term immunity in that the body delivers formed antibodies that can counter the pathogen.
Duration: Gives protection only in the short run since the passed antibodies are metabolized in the body and the person’s immune system cannot produce more.
Examples: To prevent post-hepatitis or post-rabies encephalitis or when monoclonal antibodies are employed to manage specific diseases.
Epidemiology
Anatomy
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Genetics
Prognostic Factors
Clinical History
Physical Examination
Age group
Associated comorbidity
Associated activity
Acuity of presentation
Differential Diagnoses
Laboratory Studies
Imaging Studies
Procedures
Histologic Findings
Staging
Treatment Paradigm
Vaccination Schedule: It is provided based on the age, health conditions, and types of vaccines and is administered based on a schedule. To children, this is in form of several immunizations that children undergo right from an early age till they grow to teenagers. For the adults, it comprises of the boosters and the vaccines appropriate for the age and condition of the person.
Types of Vaccines:
Live Attenuated Vaccines: These contain a weakened form of the virus or bacteria (e.g., measles, mumps, rubella).
Inactivated or Killed Vaccines: These have a virus or bacteria that are live, but killed in this case (for instance polio, hepatitis A).
Subunit, Recombinant, or Conjugate Vaccines: These include fragment of the virus or bacteria e.g. protein (HPV).
mRNA Vaccines: These use messenger RNA to instruct the cells to produce a protein that provokes an immune response, such as the COVID-19 vaccines.
Administration: Vaccines can be given in different ways, such as parenteral, which involves intramuscular, subcutaneous or intravenous injection, and intranasal.
Monitoring and Follow-up: The general observation is carried out after the vaccination, for any response that may occur within the first few minutes. This may require a follow-up for booster doses or other vaccinations that might have been administered.
Public Health Considerations: Immunization programs are targeted at attaining herd immunity, whereby the goal is to protect the susceptive population in the community who cannot access the vaccines or has a compromised immunity to such diseases.
Special Populations: Special populations, such as pregnant women, elderly, and immunocompromised patients, are guided by different dosage recommendations.
by Stage
by Modality
Chemotherapy
Radiation Therapy
Surgical Interventions
Hormone Therapy
Immunotherapy
Hyperthermia
Photodynamic Therapy
Stem Cell Transplant
Targeted Therapy
Palliative Care
Effectiveness of Ebola vaccine in immunization
Ebola vaccine
Several vaccines and antiviral drugs have been especially developed. A Zaire Ebola vaccine that has been in use in West Africa since 2016, received USFDA approval in December 2019; the vaccine would be given to individuals above 18 years of age. There are two vaccines available for Zaire Ebola and used in the Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC. Some centres offer vaccines for the Zaire Ebola, and some do not offer broader immunity for the Sudan Ebola virus disease. Vaccines against other Sudan Ebola virus diseases are also being produced.
Role of Smallpox vaccine in immunization
The smallpox vaccine does not contain the smallpox virus. However, the live vaccinia virus in the vaccine belongs to the same family as the viruses that cause mpox and smallpox. There are two smallpox vaccines with licenses in the United States:
ACAM2000 is a replicating live vaccinia virus in the vaccinated person. This is mainly because vaccination with the vaccinia virus returns only a milder form of infection and eventually immunizes people from smallpox.
JYNNEOS is a weaker or referred to as an attenuated vaccinia virus, which is incapable of multiplying in the individual receiving the vaccine. The drug is used for prophylaxis of two formations, smallpox and mpox.
Use of BCG vaccine in immunization
The BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin) vaccine is mainly administered to prevent tuberculosis. It is derived from an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis related to bacterium that result in tuberculosis. It is given to infants and young children in regions where TB is more dominant to help shield them against severe cases like TB meningitis and miliary TB.
Effectiveness of Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines in immunization
These inactivated vaccines contain killed or inactivated pathogens; thus, they cannot cause disease but still elicit an immune response.
Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV): IPV stands for Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine. IPV is given to prevent poliomyelitis. The virus is killed with formaldehyde. The vaccine induces immunity to poliovirus.
Role of Live Attenuated Vaccines in immunization
Public health
These vaccines are usually prepared from living organism producing pathogens which are no longer active to cause disease in the healthy individuals but are capable eliciting a good immune response.
Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine: It is a combination vaccine where the viruses used are live attenuated strains of the measles, mumps, and rubella. In a way, it awakens the body’s defense mechanism against all the three diseases.
Yellow Fever Vaccine: This is a vaccine that has live attenuated yellow fever virus and is used in the prevention of yellow fever which is spread through mosquito bites.
Role of Subunit, Recombinant, or Conjugate Vaccines in immunization
These are vaccines that are made from a part of the organism, or from a recombination of the organism together with a harmless carrier organism.
These vaccines contain segments of the pathogen that are invoked to precipitate an immune response in the human body.
Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine: This vaccine includes recombinant proteins from the HPV virus.
As far as vaccines are concerned, it assists in preventing the HPV types leading to cervical and other cancers.
Haemophilus influenzae Type b Vaccine:Â This conjugate vaccine contains polysaccharides of Hib, having microorganisms attached to a protein called carrier. It helps prevent some bacterial diseases mostly in children.
Effectiveness of Toxoid Vaccines in immunization
These are the vaccines that contain bacteria’s inactivated toxins.
Tetanus Vaccine: The vaccine contains the inactivated tetanospasmin toxin which has been cultivated by Clostridium tetani. It will prevent tetanus because it will cause the body to manufacture antibodies to fight the poison.
Diphtheria Vaccine: This vaccine contains killed diphtheria toxin. It confers protection against the clinical disease of diphtheria by virtue of an increase in anti-toxin antibodies.
Role of mRNA Vaccines in immunization
These vaccines utilize the RNA molecules instructing the cells to build a protein that elicits the immune response.
COVID-19 Vaccines (e.g, Pfizer-Bio-NTech and Moderna): These vaccines contain mRNA coding for spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 virus. The produced protein elicits an immune response to COVID-19 since the medicine targets the virus.
Medication
hepatitis b vaccine (Recombinant)Â
Administer 0.5 ml and 1 ml per dose intramuscularly for a total of 3 doses given each
for Engerix-B and Recombivax-HB:
19 years and younger: Administer three doses of 0.5 ml each intramuscularly on 0, 1, and 6 month schedule
20 years and older: Administer three doses of 1 ml each intramuscularly on 0, 1, and 6 month schedule
Dosing Modification
Renal Impairment
for patients ≥20 years old:
Chronic kidney disease:
Administer 1 ml per dose intramuscularly at 0, 1, and 6 months
Hemodialysis:
Administer 2 ml per dose intramuscularly at 0, 1, 2, and 6 months
Hepatic Impairment
No dose modification required
Series of 2 doses: Administer dose of 0.5 ml subcutaneously or intramuscularly and repeat this minimum 4 weeks later
hepatitis B Vaccine (Recombinant [Adjuvanted])Â
Administer dose of 0.5 ml intramuscularly given as a series of two dose minimum one month interval between doses
Indicated for Rabies Preexposure Immunization
Primary dose
Administer 1 ml in the deltoid area in three doses
The vaccine administration should be done on zero, seven, twenty-one & twenty eighth day
Booster dose Administer 1 ml intramuscularly in the deltoid area in order to continue serum titer greater than 1:5 RFFIT by serum dilution
Indicated for Rabies Postexposure Immunization
Individuals (unimmunized)
Administer 1 ml intramuscularly in five doses
The vaccine administration should be done on zero, three, seven, fourteen & twenty-eighth day in combination with HRIG on day zero
HRIG: Administer 20 IU/kg; the entire dosage should, if anatomically possible, be infiltrated around and into the wound(s), and any volume that is left over should be given intramuscularly in a location apart from where the vaccine is administered Individuals
(previously immunized)
Administer 1 ml intramuscularly in two doses on days zero & third
human papillomavirus vaccine, nonavalentÂ
Indicated for Immunization against HPV Infection:
Depending on the age at first vaccination, administer 0.5 mL intramuscularly in a series of two or three doses.
Adults up to the age of 26
9–14 years old and administered either one dose or two doses no more than five months apart: One dose
9 to 14 years, with two doses given at least five months apart: Complete HPV vaccination; no further dose required
≥15 years: A three-dose series should be given at 0, 1 to 2, and 6 months
(Minimum intervals:
4 weeks between doses one and two;
12 weeks between doses two and three;
5 months between doses one and three;)
Adults aged 27 to 45 years
2 or 3 dose series based on the patient's age at first vaccination
Indication for males
Preventing diseases listed below
Cancers of the neck and head caused by HPV types 16, 33, 31, 45, 18, 52, and 58 include oropharyngeal, anal, and other types.
Following the precancerous or dysplastic lesions caused by HPV types 11, 6,18, 31, 16, 45, 33, 58 and 52
Genital warts caused by HPV types 11 and 6.
Grades 1 to 3 anal intraepithelial neoplasia
Indications for female
Recommended for the prevention of the following dysplastic or precancerous lesions (HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58):
Cervical adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS) and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) grade 2/3
First-grade intraepithelial neoplasm of the cervical (CIN)
Grades 2 and 3 of the vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN)
Grades 2 and 3 of vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia (VaIN)
Grades 1, 2, and 3 of anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN)
0.5 mL is given intramuscularly; repeat 4 to 8 weeks after initial dose and 6 to 12 months following second dose
Booster dose: 0.5 mL is given intramuscularly every 10 years
diphtheria and tetanus toxoidsÂ
Indicated for primary immunization
Adults who did not obtain their primary round of vaccinations
Administer start dose (Tdap) Then, four weeks or more after the first dose
administer the second dose as 0.5 mL intramuscularly as Td
Administer dose third 0.5 ml as Td intramuscularly six to twelve months later
human papillomavirus vaccine, nonavalentÂ
Indicated for Immunization against HPV Infection
:
Depending on the age at first vaccination, administer 0.5 mL intramuscularly in a series of two or three doses.
Adults up to the age of 26
9–14 years old and administered either one dose or two doses no more than five months apart: One dose
9 to 14 years, with two doses given at least five months apart: Complete HPV vaccination; no further dose required
≥15 years: A three-dose series should be given at 0, 1 to 2, and 6 months
(Minimum intervals:
4 weeks between doses one and two;
12 weeks between doses two and three;
5 months between doses one and three;)
Adults aged 27 to 45 years
2 or 3 dose series based on the patient's age at first vaccination
Indication for males
Preventing diseases listed below
Cancers of the neck and head caused by HPV types 16, 33, 31, 45, 18, 52, and 58 include oropharyngeal, anal, and other types.
Following the precancerous or dysplastic lesions caused by HPV types 11, 6,18, 31, 16, 45, 33, 58 and 52
Genital warts caused by HPV types 11 and 6.
Grades 1 to 3 anal intraepithelial neoplasia
Indications for female
Recommended for the prevention of the following dysplastic or precancerous lesions (HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58):
Cervical adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS) and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) grade 2/3
First-grade intraepithelial neoplasm of the cervical (CIN)
Grades 2 and 3 of the vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN)
Grades 2 and 3 of vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia (VaIN)
Grades 1, 2, and 3 of anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN)
Recommended for active vaccination in patients older than six months who are at higher risk of exposure to prevent illness caused by the genotype of the influenza A virus H5N1
0.5 mL IM in a two-dose series given twenty-one days apart
Dose Adjustments
Limited data is available
poliovirus vaccine inactivatedÂ
Both adults and children can be protected against this illness with the use of the polio vaccination
Adults (18 years of age or older) living in the US are not advised to receive routine vaccinations; nevertheless, adults who are unvaccinated or only partially immunized and are exposed to wild poliovirus should receive a 3-dose course of vaccinations
SC/IM of 0.5 mL two doses spaced one to two months apart, or 3rd dose six to twelve months later, OR
three doses spaced more than a month apart or sufficient to finish the three doses altogether
Adults who have had all recommended vaccinations may need to take one booster dose if they plan to visit regions where there is a high risk of exposure to polio
Dose Adjustments
Limited data is available
pneumococcal vaccine 13-valentÂ
For individuals 18 years and above, it is recommended for:
Active immunization to prevent pneumonia and invasive disease caused by S. pneumoniae serotypes 1, 4, 3, 5, 6B, 6A, 7F, 9V, 18C, 14, 19A, 23F, and 19F
The usual adult dose is 0.5 mL IM one time
Adults 19–64: Adults with specific medical issues are advised to use according to ACIP guidelines
Immunocompetent adults over 65: immunization needs are determined by collaborative decision-making between the patient and the practitioner (i.e., immunization is no longer routinely advised for all adults over 65)
adults with specific medical issues aged 19–64:
One dosage of PCV13 and one dose of PPSV23 should be given at least a year apart; repeat the regimen if you are over 65
Adults who are immunecompetent and over 65:
using collaborative clinical decision-making
When administering PCV13 and PPSV23 together, PCV13 should be given first and the two should wait at least a year between each other
Avoid giving out within the same visit
Considerations for Dosing
specific health issues affecting people aged 19 to 64:
Alcoholism
Cigarette smoking
CSF leak
Diabetes mellitus
Cochlear implant
Congenital or acquired asplenia
Chronic renal failure
Congenital or acquired immunodeficiencies
Generalized malignancy
Nephrotic syndrome
HIV infection
Sickle cell disease or other hemoglobinopathies
Lymphoma, hodgkin disease, leukemia, multiple myeloma
Iatrogenic immunosuppression
Solid organ transplant
Chronic heart, liver, or lung disease
Dose Adjustments
Limited data is available
hepatitis b vaccine (Recombinant)Â
Administer 0.5 ml per dose intramuscularly for a total of 3 doses given
for Recombivax-HB:
19 years and younger: Administer three doses of 0.5 ml each intramuscularly on 0, 1, and 6 month schedule
for minimum age of 12 months
Routine vaccination
series of 2 dose: administer 0.5 ml subcutaneously or intramuscularly
first dose: for 12 to 15 months
second dose: for 4 to 6 years old
Rabies Preexposure Immunization
Primary dose
Administer 1 ml intramuscularly in the deltoid area; in infants & children who are small, administration the three doses of vaccine in the thigh anterolateral region
The vaccine administration should be done on zero, seven, twenty-one & twenty eighth day
Booster dose
Administer1 ml intramuscularly in the deltoid area in order to continue serum titer greater than 1:5 RFFIT by serum dilution
Rabies postexposure Immunization
Individuals (unimmunized)
Administer 1 ml intramuscularly in five doses
The vaccine administration should be done on zero, three, seven, fourteen & twenty-eighth day in combination with HRIG on day zero
HRIG: Administer 20 IU/kg; the entire dosage should, if anatomically possible, be infiltrated around and into the wound(s), and any volume that is left over should be given intramuscularly in a location apart from where the vaccine is administered
Individuals (previously immunized)
Administer 1 ml intramuscularly in two doses on days zero & third
human papillomavirus vaccine, nonavalentÂ
Indicated for Immunisation against HPV Infection:
Depending on the age at first vaccination, administer 0.5 mL intramuscularly in a series of two or three doses.
Ages 9 to 14 at the time of the first vaccination: two doses every 0–6–12 months
Initially immunised individuals ≥15 years old: a three-dose series at 0, 1 to 2, and 6 months (minimum intervals between doses 1 and 2 are 4 weeks;
between doses 2 and 3 are 12 weeks;
and between doses 1 and 3 are 5 months;
if given too soon, repeat the dose).
Below 7 Yrs: Safety & efficacy were not established
Above 7 Yrs: 0.5 mL is given intramuscularly; repeat 4 to 8 weeks after initial dose and 6 to 12 months following second dose
Booster dose: 0.5 mL is given intramuscularly every 10 years
diphtheria and tetanus toxoidsÂ
Indicated for primary immunization
For patients who not taken vaccination
Age less than seven years
DT
Administer a series of five-dose
When using DT, the pertussis component is contraindicated:
DTaP is the recommended primary vaccination for children under the age of seven
Three doses: Administer 0.5 ml intramuscularly at two, four & six months of age;
administered as early as six weeks and then every four to eight weeks afterward
Four doses: The third dose must be given at minimum six months apart; if six months have elapsed subsequent to the third dose, the dosage may be given as early as age of twelve months
Fifth dose: four to six years old before to entering school; if the fourth dose is administered beyond the age of four
For age ≥7 years
Unimmunized individuals
Adults who did not obtain their primary round of vaccinations
Administer start dose (Tdap)
Then, four weeks or more after the first dose, administer the second dose as 0.5 mL intramuscularly as Td
Administer dose third 0.5 ml as Td intramuscularly six to twelve months later
Routine Booster Immunization
For every ten years, administer 0.5 ml as Tdap/Td
To those patients who have finalized first immunization
human papillomavirus vaccine, nonavalentÂ
Indicated for Immunisation against HPV Infection:
Depending on the age at first vaccination, administer 0.5 mL intramuscularly in a series of two or three doses.
Ages 9 to 14 at the time of the first vaccination: two doses every 0–6–12 months
Initially immunised individuals ≥15 years old: a three-dose series at 0, 1 to 2, and 6 months (minimum intervals between doses 1 and 2 are 4 weeks;
between doses 2 and 3 are 12 weeks;
and between doses 1 and 3 are 5 months;
if given too soon, repeat the dose).
WHO recommendation as of October 2023
WHO Understudy, Prequalification might be released in late 2023, at most.
The availability is to be confirmed in Q2 of 2024.
Under Phase III clinical trials (Approved for use in Ghana, Burkina Faso and Nigeria)
It is indicated for the active immunization of children between the ages of 5 and 36 months age group at the highest risk of death against Plasmodium falciparum-induced malaria.
Malarial Vaccine
The three-dose primary regimen implies that participants in the trial received the vaccine in three separate doses as part of the initial vaccination series.
Booster dose:
A booster dose is administered 12 months following the completion of the primary series.
Recommended for active vaccination in patients older than six months who are at higher risk of exposure to prevent illness caused by the influenza A virus H5N1 genotype
<6 months: No safety or efficacy data available
six months to seventeen years
Adjuvant AS03: 0.25 mL IM given every 21 days in a 2-dose series
Adjuvant MF59 (Audenz) two-dose series: 0.5 mL IV given 21 days apart
Safety and efficacy are not seen in pediatrics less than 6 weeks old
0.5 mL SC/IM; given in two doses, one month apart (at ages two and four months), a third dosage eighteen months later, and a fourth dose in children who are 4-6 years age or so before starting school
pneumococcal vaccine 13-valentÂ
Routine vaccination involves a 4-dose series administered at ages 2, 4, and 6 months, with an additional dose at ages 12-15 months
For individuals aged six weeks through 17 years, the vaccine is recommended for active immunization against invasive disease which S pneumoniae serotypes 1, 6B, 3, 4, 5, 6A, 9V, 7F, 9V, 14, 18C, 19F, 19A, 19F, and 23F cause
In the age group of 6 weeks through 5 years, the vaccine is also indicated for the otitis media prevention caused by S pneumoniae serotypes 4, 9V, 6B, 14, 19F, 18C, and 23F
The usual dose is 0.5 mL administered intramuscularly (IM)
For the most current vaccination schedules, refer to http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/index.html
The PCV7 vaccine, designed initially to cover seven strains of pneumococcal bacteria, has undergone an update to the PCV13 vaccine, expanding its coverage to 13 strains
Completion of the PCV series, initiated with PCV7, is advised with the use of PCV13. For children aged 14–59 months who have completed an age-appropriate PCV7 series and for those aged 60–71 months with specific underlying medical conditions, an additional dose of PCV13 is recommended
The PCV vaccine is recommended for the following groups of children:
• Infants below 24 months should receive four doses of the vaccine, starting at two months
• Subsequent doses should be administered at four months and six months, with a final booster recommended at 12 to 15 months
• Children who miss these intervals should still receive the vaccine, with the number of doses and intervals contingent on the child's age
• Healthy children aged 2 through 4 years who did not complete the four-dose regimen should receive one dose of the vaccine
Additionally, the PPSV vaccine is recommended for adults aged 19 through 64 who smoke or have asthma and for individuals aged 2 through 64 undergoing treatments affecting the immune system (e.g., long-term steroid use, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy)
Furthermore, individuals aged 2 through 64 with specific health conditions impacting the immune system, such as Hodgkin's disease, HIV infection, lymphoma, kidney failure, leukemia, diabetes, and more, should be vaccinated with PPSV
For children aged six weeks to 5 years:
• Four doses of 0.5 mL each, administered intramuscularly (IM) at two months, four months, six months, and 12 to 15 months
For unvaccinated children aged seven months through 5 years:
• Aged 7–11 months when the first dosage was given: three 0.5 mL intramuscular injections in total
• Administer the first two doses with at least a 4-week interval
• Administer the third dose after the child turns one year old, with at least a 2-month gap after the second dose
• 12 to 23 months old during the initial dosage: Two dosages of 0.5 mL each, intramuscularly
• Administer the doses with at least a 2-month interval
• Aged 24 months to 5 years at the first dose: One 0.5 mL dose, IM
For individuals aged 6 to 17 years:
• A single 0.5 mL dose, IM, is given once, with at least an 8-week gap after any previous pneumococcal vaccine
Future Trends
Vaccination is a procedure that assists shield people from diseases that affect them or the population of a particular region. This seeks to involve use of vaccines, substances given to the body to add immunity to bacteria and viruses to allow the body immune system to be aware of the pathogen.
Types of immunization
Active Immunization
Definition: It causes the body’s immune system to become sensitized to an antigen through administering such antigen.
Working: The immune system is given a fraction of the pathogen in one form or another, including a weakened or inactivated form, evident in vaccinating or a component of the pathogen, such as a protein subunit.
Duration: Gives lasting immunity since it activates the formation of memory cells capable of accommodating the pathogen the next time the latter is encountered.
Examples: MMR vaccines, COVID-19, and all other diseases preventive vaccines.
Passive Immunization
Definition: Assists in transmitting antibodies from an immune individual to a non-immune individual.
Working: Offers instantaneous to short term immunity in that the body delivers formed antibodies that can counter the pathogen.
Duration: Gives protection only in the short run since the passed antibodies are metabolized in the body and the person’s immune system cannot produce more.
Examples: To prevent post-hepatitis or post-rabies encephalitis or when monoclonal antibodies are employed to manage specific diseases.
Vaccination Schedule: It is provided based on the age, health conditions, and types of vaccines and is administered based on a schedule. To children, this is in form of several immunizations that children undergo right from an early age till they grow to teenagers. For the adults, it comprises of the boosters and the vaccines appropriate for the age and condition of the person.
Types of Vaccines:
Live Attenuated Vaccines: These contain a weakened form of the virus or bacteria (e.g., measles, mumps, rubella).
Inactivated or Killed Vaccines: These have a virus or bacteria that are live, but killed in this case (for instance polio, hepatitis A).
Subunit, Recombinant, or Conjugate Vaccines: These include fragment of the virus or bacteria e.g. protein (HPV).
mRNA Vaccines: These use messenger RNA to instruct the cells to produce a protein that provokes an immune response, such as the COVID-19 vaccines.
Administration: Vaccines can be given in different ways, such as parenteral, which involves intramuscular, subcutaneous or intravenous injection, and intranasal.
Monitoring and Follow-up: The general observation is carried out after the vaccination, for any response that may occur within the first few minutes. This may require a follow-up for booster doses or other vaccinations that might have been administered.
Public Health Considerations: Immunization programs are targeted at attaining herd immunity, whereby the goal is to protect the susceptive population in the community who cannot access the vaccines or has a compromised immunity to such diseases.
Special Populations: Special populations, such as pregnant women, elderly, and immunocompromised patients, are guided by different dosage recommendations.
Ebola vaccine
Several vaccines and antiviral drugs have been especially developed. A Zaire Ebola vaccine that has been in use in West Africa since 2016, received USFDA approval in December 2019; the vaccine would be given to individuals above 18 years of age. There are two vaccines available for Zaire Ebola and used in the Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC. Some centres offer vaccines for the Zaire Ebola, and some do not offer broader immunity for the Sudan Ebola virus disease. Vaccines against other Sudan Ebola virus diseases are also being produced.
The smallpox vaccine does not contain the smallpox virus. However, the live vaccinia virus in the vaccine belongs to the same family as the viruses that cause mpox and smallpox. There are two smallpox vaccines with licenses in the United States:
ACAM2000 is a replicating live vaccinia virus in the vaccinated person. This is mainly because vaccination with the vaccinia virus returns only a milder form of infection and eventually immunizes people from smallpox.
JYNNEOS is a weaker or referred to as an attenuated vaccinia virus, which is incapable of multiplying in the individual receiving the vaccine. The drug is used for prophylaxis of two formations, smallpox and mpox.
The BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin) vaccine is mainly administered to prevent tuberculosis. It is derived from an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis related to bacterium that result in tuberculosis. It is given to infants and young children in regions where TB is more dominant to help shield them against severe cases like TB meningitis and miliary TB.
These inactivated vaccines contain killed or inactivated pathogens; thus, they cannot cause disease but still elicit an immune response.
Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV): IPV stands for Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine. IPV is given to prevent poliomyelitis. The virus is killed with formaldehyde. The vaccine induces immunity to poliovirus.
Public health
These vaccines are usually prepared from living organism producing pathogens which are no longer active to cause disease in the healthy individuals but are capable eliciting a good immune response.
Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine: It is a combination vaccine where the viruses used are live attenuated strains of the measles, mumps, and rubella. In a way, it awakens the body’s defense mechanism against all the three diseases.
Yellow Fever Vaccine: This is a vaccine that has live attenuated yellow fever virus and is used in the prevention of yellow fever which is spread through mosquito bites.
These are vaccines that are made from a part of the organism, or from a recombination of the organism together with a harmless carrier organism.
These vaccines contain segments of the pathogen that are invoked to precipitate an immune response in the human body.
Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine: This vaccine includes recombinant proteins from the HPV virus.
As far as vaccines are concerned, it assists in preventing the HPV types leading to cervical and other cancers.
Haemophilus influenzae Type b Vaccine:Â This conjugate vaccine contains polysaccharides of Hib, having microorganisms attached to a protein called carrier. It helps prevent some bacterial diseases mostly in children.
These are the vaccines that contain bacteria’s inactivated toxins.
Tetanus Vaccine: The vaccine contains the inactivated tetanospasmin toxin which has been cultivated by Clostridium tetani. It will prevent tetanus because it will cause the body to manufacture antibodies to fight the poison.
Diphtheria Vaccine: This vaccine contains killed diphtheria toxin. It confers protection against the clinical disease of diphtheria by virtue of an increase in anti-toxin antibodies.
These vaccines utilize the RNA molecules instructing the cells to build a protein that elicits the immune response.
COVID-19 Vaccines (e.g, Pfizer-Bio-NTech and Moderna): These vaccines contain mRNA coding for spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 virus. The produced protein elicits an immune response to COVID-19 since the medicine targets the virus.
Vaccination is a procedure that assists shield people from diseases that affect them or the population of a particular region. This seeks to involve use of vaccines, substances given to the body to add immunity to bacteria and viruses to allow the body immune system to be aware of the pathogen.
Types of immunization
Active Immunization
Definition: It causes the body’s immune system to become sensitized to an antigen through administering such antigen.
Working: The immune system is given a fraction of the pathogen in one form or another, including a weakened or inactivated form, evident in vaccinating or a component of the pathogen, such as a protein subunit.
Duration: Gives lasting immunity since it activates the formation of memory cells capable of accommodating the pathogen the next time the latter is encountered.
Examples: MMR vaccines, COVID-19, and all other diseases preventive vaccines.
Passive Immunization
Definition: Assists in transmitting antibodies from an immune individual to a non-immune individual.
Working: Offers instantaneous to short term immunity in that the body delivers formed antibodies that can counter the pathogen.
Duration: Gives protection only in the short run since the passed antibodies are metabolized in the body and the person’s immune system cannot produce more.
Examples: To prevent post-hepatitis or post-rabies encephalitis or when monoclonal antibodies are employed to manage specific diseases.
Vaccination Schedule: It is provided based on the age, health conditions, and types of vaccines and is administered based on a schedule. To children, this is in form of several immunizations that children undergo right from an early age till they grow to teenagers. For the adults, it comprises of the boosters and the vaccines appropriate for the age and condition of the person.
Types of Vaccines:
Live Attenuated Vaccines: These contain a weakened form of the virus or bacteria (e.g., measles, mumps, rubella).
Inactivated or Killed Vaccines: These have a virus or bacteria that are live, but killed in this case (for instance polio, hepatitis A).
Subunit, Recombinant, or Conjugate Vaccines: These include fragment of the virus or bacteria e.g. protein (HPV).
mRNA Vaccines: These use messenger RNA to instruct the cells to produce a protein that provokes an immune response, such as the COVID-19 vaccines.
Administration: Vaccines can be given in different ways, such as parenteral, which involves intramuscular, subcutaneous or intravenous injection, and intranasal.
Monitoring and Follow-up: The general observation is carried out after the vaccination, for any response that may occur within the first few minutes. This may require a follow-up for booster doses or other vaccinations that might have been administered.
Public Health Considerations: Immunization programs are targeted at attaining herd immunity, whereby the goal is to protect the susceptive population in the community who cannot access the vaccines or has a compromised immunity to such diseases.
Special Populations: Special populations, such as pregnant women, elderly, and immunocompromised patients, are guided by different dosage recommendations.
Ebola vaccine
Several vaccines and antiviral drugs have been especially developed. A Zaire Ebola vaccine that has been in use in West Africa since 2016, received USFDA approval in December 2019; the vaccine would be given to individuals above 18 years of age. There are two vaccines available for Zaire Ebola and used in the Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC. Some centres offer vaccines for the Zaire Ebola, and some do not offer broader immunity for the Sudan Ebola virus disease. Vaccines against other Sudan Ebola virus diseases are also being produced.
The smallpox vaccine does not contain the smallpox virus. However, the live vaccinia virus in the vaccine belongs to the same family as the viruses that cause mpox and smallpox. There are two smallpox vaccines with licenses in the United States:
ACAM2000 is a replicating live vaccinia virus in the vaccinated person. This is mainly because vaccination with the vaccinia virus returns only a milder form of infection and eventually immunizes people from smallpox.
JYNNEOS is a weaker or referred to as an attenuated vaccinia virus, which is incapable of multiplying in the individual receiving the vaccine. The drug is used for prophylaxis of two formations, smallpox and mpox.
The BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin) vaccine is mainly administered to prevent tuberculosis. It is derived from an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis related to bacterium that result in tuberculosis. It is given to infants and young children in regions where TB is more dominant to help shield them against severe cases like TB meningitis and miliary TB.
These inactivated vaccines contain killed or inactivated pathogens; thus, they cannot cause disease but still elicit an immune response.
Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV): IPV stands for Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine. IPV is given to prevent poliomyelitis. The virus is killed with formaldehyde. The vaccine induces immunity to poliovirus.
Public health
These vaccines are usually prepared from living organism producing pathogens which are no longer active to cause disease in the healthy individuals but are capable eliciting a good immune response.
Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine: It is a combination vaccine where the viruses used are live attenuated strains of the measles, mumps, and rubella. In a way, it awakens the body’s defense mechanism against all the three diseases.
Yellow Fever Vaccine: This is a vaccine that has live attenuated yellow fever virus and is used in the prevention of yellow fever which is spread through mosquito bites.
These are vaccines that are made from a part of the organism, or from a recombination of the organism together with a harmless carrier organism.
These vaccines contain segments of the pathogen that are invoked to precipitate an immune response in the human body.
Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine: This vaccine includes recombinant proteins from the HPV virus.
As far as vaccines are concerned, it assists in preventing the HPV types leading to cervical and other cancers.
Haemophilus influenzae Type b Vaccine:Â This conjugate vaccine contains polysaccharides of Hib, having microorganisms attached to a protein called carrier. It helps prevent some bacterial diseases mostly in children.
These are the vaccines that contain bacteria’s inactivated toxins.
Tetanus Vaccine: The vaccine contains the inactivated tetanospasmin toxin which has been cultivated by Clostridium tetani. It will prevent tetanus because it will cause the body to manufacture antibodies to fight the poison.
Diphtheria Vaccine: This vaccine contains killed diphtheria toxin. It confers protection against the clinical disease of diphtheria by virtue of an increase in anti-toxin antibodies.
These vaccines utilize the RNA molecules instructing the cells to build a protein that elicits the immune response.
COVID-19 Vaccines (e.g, Pfizer-Bio-NTech and Moderna): These vaccines contain mRNA coding for spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 virus. The produced protein elicits an immune response to COVID-19 since the medicine targets the virus.

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