The study of the distribution and causes of health-related conditions or events in particular populations, as well as the application of this knowledge to the management of health issues, is known as epidemiology. The epidemiology of Enterobacter bugandensis is a relatively new and emerging field, as this bacterium was only recently described as a novel species of Enterobacter in 2018. Enterobacter bugandensis has been associated with severe clinical infections, especially in neonates and immunocompromised patients. Some of the infections caused by Enterobacter bugandensis include bacteremia, lower respiratory tract infections, endocarditis, intra-abdominal infections, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, CNS infections, ocular infections, infections of the skin, soft tissues, and urinary tract, among other places.
Enterobacter bugandensis is a multi-drug resistant bacterium that can produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), which are enzymes that can inactivate many types of antibiotics, such as penicillins and cephalosporins. It can also carry other resistance genes, such as blaNDM-5 and blaIMI-1, which confer resistance to carbapenems, a class of last-resort antibiotics. Enterobacter bugandensis can acquire and transfer these resistance genes through plasmids, which are mobile genetic elements that can move between bacteria. Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis poses a severe threat to public health and infection control.
The population structure and pangenome analysis of Enterobacter bugandensis reveal that it is a diverse and dynamic species, with five phylogroups (PG-A to E) identified based on core- and whole-genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST and wgMLST, respectively). The pangenome is the total set of genes present in a species, which can be divided into accessory genes (found in some strains but absent in others) and core genes (shared by all strains). The pangenome of Enterobacter bugandensis consists of 6,057 genes, of which 2,635 are core genes and 3,422 are accessory genes. The accessory genes include significant antimicrobial resistance and virulence determinants, such as ESBLs, carbapenemases, and siderophores. Iron is bound and transported by molecules called siderophores, and it is necessary for bacterial growth and survival. Enterobacter bugandensis can produce three types of siderophores: enterobactin, aerobactin, and salmochelin. The latter is conserved in all PG-E isolates, which may indicate a higher virulence potential of this phylogroup.
The epidemiology of Enterobacter bugandensis is still evolving, as more cases and outbreaks are being reported from different countries and regions. The first case of Enterobacter bugandensis infection was reported in India in 2017, where it caused neonatal sepsis in a hospital. Since then, Enterobacter bugandensis has been isolated from clinical and non-clinical sources in several countries, such as Germany, Brazil, China, and the United States. The global distribution and transmission patterns of Enterobacter bugandensis need to be better understood, and more surveillance and research are needed to elucidate the epidemiological characteristics and risk factors of this emerging pathogen.
Kingdon: Bacteria
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Enterobacterales
Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Enterobacter
Species: E. bugandensis
The structure of Enterobacter bugandensis can be summarized in five points as follows:
Enterobacter bugandensis is a rod-shaped and Gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae.
It has a circular chromosome consisting of 4,355 genes with a 56% G + C content out of 4,717,613 base pairs.
It also has a plasmid of 299 kb that carries genes for antibiotic resistance, such as extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and metallo-beta-lactamases (MBLs).
It has genes encoding for surface structures such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), flagella, and capsules, which are involved in the biosynthesis of antigens, motility, and virulence.
It has genes encoding to production siderophores, such as enterobactin, aerobactin, and salmochelin, which are involved in iron uptake and metabolism.
There is no information about the antigenic types of Enterobacter bugandensis. Antigenic types are based on the differences in the surface antigens of bacteria, such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), flagella, and capsules. These antigens can elicit immune responses and are used for serological identification and classification of bacteria. For example, Escherichia coli has more than 170 antigenic types based on the O (LPS), H (flagella), and K (capsule) antigens.
However, the genome sequence of Enterobacter bugandensis strain EB-247, which was isolated from the International Space Station (ISS), revealed that it has genes encoding for LPS biosynthesis, flagellar assembly, and capsule formation.
Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis may have different antigenic types based on these surface structures, but further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
The pathogenesis of Enterobacter bugandensis has yet to be fully understood, but some possible factors have been identified. According to one study, this bacterium is highly virulent in both Galleria mellonella (a model organism for studying bacterial infections) and mouse models of infection. It can induce systemic infection and release of proinflammatory cytokines, like Salmonella Typhimurium. The study also found that the bacterium has a large plasmid that carries genes for antibiotic resistance. At the same time, the chromosome contains genes for virulence properties, such as iron uptake, metabolism, and toxin production.
Another study suggested that Enterobacter bugandensis can form biofilms and secrete multiple cellular toxins, such as enterotoxins, hemolysins, and pore-forming toxins. These toxins can damage the host cells and tissues and facilitate the invasion and dissemination of the bacterium. The study also mentioned that the bacterium has a type III secretion system and curli fimbriae, which are structures that help the bacterium attach to and inject effector proteins into the host cells. These effector proteins can modulate the host immune response and cause inflammation and tissue damage.
Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis is a highly pathogenic species of the genus Enterobacter that can cause severe clinical infections. Additional research is required to clarify the molecular pathways of its pathogenesis and its association with septicemic infection.
It is also a multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterium that can survive and grow in high concentrations of human serum. Therefore, it poses a potential threat to human health, especially for immunocompromised patients and astronauts in the International Space Station (ISS).
The host defenses of Enterobacter bugandensis have yet to be well understood, but genomic and transcriptomic analyses have suggested some possible mechanisms. These include:
Iron uptake and storage systems, such as siderophores, ferric iron transporters, and ferritins, help the bacterium acquire and store iron, an essential nutrient for bacterial growth and virulence.
Resistance to poisonous substances and medicines, such as beta-lactamases, efflux pumps, and modification enzymes, that confer resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents.
virulence factors, including poisons, adhesins, invasins, and secretion systems, that enable the bacterium to adhere to, invade, damage, and manipulate host cells and tissues.
Stress response and adaptation systems, such as heat shock proteins, oxidative stress proteins, and DNA repair enzymes, that help the bacterium to cope with environmental stresses and maintain genomic stability.
These host defenses of Enterobacter bugandensis may allow it to evade or overcome the host’s innate and adaptive immune responses, such as phagocytosis, complement, antibodies, and cytokines.
Enterobacter bugandensis is a novel species of Enterobacter that has a history of severe clinical infections, especially in neonates and immunocompromised patients.
Some of the clinical manifestations of Enterobacter bugandensis infections are:
Bacteremia: Blood bacterial contamination, which can result in sepsis, a potentially fatal illness that causes inflammation and organ failure.
Lower respiratory tract infections: Infections of the lungs and airways, such as pneumonia and bronchitis, can cause fever, cough, chest pain, and breathing difficulties.
Skin and soft-tissue infections: Infections of the skin and underlying tissues, such as cellulitis and abscesses, can cause redness, swelling, pain, and pus formation.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs): Infections of the urinary system, such as the bladder and kidneys, which can cause burning, frequency, urgency, and blood in the urine.
Endocarditis: infection of the heart’s internal lining and its valves, which can cause fever, chills, heart murmurs, and complications such as heart failure and stroke.
Intra-abdominal infections: Infections of the organs and spaces within the abdomen, such as peritonitis and appendicitis, can result in diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, and abdominal pain.
Septic arthritis: Infection of the joints, such as the knee and hip, which can cause joint pain, swelling, stiffness, and reduced mobility.
Osteomyelitis: Infection of the bone, which can cause bone pain, fever, and reduced function of the affected limb.
CNS infections: Central nerve system infections, such as meningitis and brain abscess, can cause headache, neck stiffness, confusion, seizures, and coma1.
Ophthalmic infections: Infections of the eye, such as conjunctivitis and keratitis, which can cause eye redness, discharge, pain, and vision loss.
Diagnosing Enterobacter bugandensis is challenging. This bacterium is a novel species of Enterobacter that has a history of severe clinical infections, such as neonatal sepsis and bloodstream infections. It is also a multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterium that can grow and thrive when exposed to high levels of human serum.
Some possible methods for the diagnosis of Enterobacter bugandensis are:
One molecular method for identifying Enterobacter bugandensis genes or sequences is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). For example, a one-step multiplex PCR assay has been developed for the identification and differentiation of Enterobacter cloacae complex (ECC) and Enterobacter bugandensis. This assay targets four genes: gyrB, rpoB, hsp60, and blaCTX-M-15, and can distinguish Enterobacter bugandensis from other ECC members by the presence of a 474 bp amplicon corresponding to the hsp60 gene.
Phenotypic methods, such as biochemical tests and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, can reveal the characteristics and resistance patterns of Enterobacter bugandensis. However, these methods may not be reliable or accurate, as Enterobacter bugandensis may share similar features with other Enterobacter species or MDR bacteria. Therefore, phenotypic methods should be combined with molecular methods for confirmation and validation.
Techniques used in mass spectrometry, like matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) MS, that can identify bacteria based on their protein profiles. However, these methods require the availability of reference databases and spectra for Enterobacter bugandensis, which may not be updated or comprehensive.
Therefore, mass spectrometry methods should be interpreted with caution and supplemented with other methods for verification.
To prevent Enterobacter bugandensis infections:
Infection Control Practices:
Emphasize hand hygiene, environmental disinfection, and isolation of infected patients in healthcare settings.
Ensure appropriate use of personal protective equipment to minimize transmission.
Antibiotic Stewardship Programs:
Implement surveillance and monitoring to track antibiotic resistance.
Promote rational use of antibiotics to prevent the emergence and spread of resistance.
Vaccination and Immunotherapy:
Explore vaccine development and administration targeting specific antigens or virulence factors of Enterobacter bugandensis.
Consider immunotherapy with antibodies to elicit protective immune responses in the host.
Novel Antimicrobial Agents:
Investigate natural or synthetic compounds, such as lasso peptide microcin J25, that inhibit essential functions or pathways of Enterobacter bugandensis.
Explore genetic modifications like tolC gene deletion to increase susceptibility to antibiotics.
Enterobacter bugandensis: a novel enterobacterial species associated with severe clinical infection (nature.com)
Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains | BMC Microbiology | Full Text (biomedcentral.com)
The study of the distribution and causes of health-related conditions or events in particular populations, as well as the application of this knowledge to the management of health issues, is known as epidemiology. The epidemiology of Enterobacter bugandensis is a relatively new and emerging field, as this bacterium was only recently described as a novel species of Enterobacter in 2018. Enterobacter bugandensis has been associated with severe clinical infections, especially in neonates and immunocompromised patients. Some of the infections caused by Enterobacter bugandensis include bacteremia, lower respiratory tract infections, endocarditis, intra-abdominal infections, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, CNS infections, ocular infections, infections of the skin, soft tissues, and urinary tract, among other places.
Enterobacter bugandensis is a multi-drug resistant bacterium that can produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), which are enzymes that can inactivate many types of antibiotics, such as penicillins and cephalosporins. It can also carry other resistance genes, such as blaNDM-5 and blaIMI-1, which confer resistance to carbapenems, a class of last-resort antibiotics. Enterobacter bugandensis can acquire and transfer these resistance genes through plasmids, which are mobile genetic elements that can move between bacteria. Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis poses a severe threat to public health and infection control.
The population structure and pangenome analysis of Enterobacter bugandensis reveal that it is a diverse and dynamic species, with five phylogroups (PG-A to E) identified based on core- and whole-genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST and wgMLST, respectively). The pangenome is the total set of genes present in a species, which can be divided into accessory genes (found in some strains but absent in others) and core genes (shared by all strains). The pangenome of Enterobacter bugandensis consists of 6,057 genes, of which 2,635 are core genes and 3,422 are accessory genes. The accessory genes include significant antimicrobial resistance and virulence determinants, such as ESBLs, carbapenemases, and siderophores. Iron is bound and transported by molecules called siderophores, and it is necessary for bacterial growth and survival. Enterobacter bugandensis can produce three types of siderophores: enterobactin, aerobactin, and salmochelin. The latter is conserved in all PG-E isolates, which may indicate a higher virulence potential of this phylogroup.
The epidemiology of Enterobacter bugandensis is still evolving, as more cases and outbreaks are being reported from different countries and regions. The first case of Enterobacter bugandensis infection was reported in India in 2017, where it caused neonatal sepsis in a hospital. Since then, Enterobacter bugandensis has been isolated from clinical and non-clinical sources in several countries, such as Germany, Brazil, China, and the United States. The global distribution and transmission patterns of Enterobacter bugandensis need to be better understood, and more surveillance and research are needed to elucidate the epidemiological characteristics and risk factors of this emerging pathogen.
Kingdon: Bacteria
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Enterobacterales
Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Enterobacter
Species: E. bugandensis
The structure of Enterobacter bugandensis can be summarized in five points as follows:
Enterobacter bugandensis is a rod-shaped and Gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae.
It has a circular chromosome consisting of 4,355 genes with a 56% G + C content out of 4,717,613 base pairs.
It also has a plasmid of 299 kb that carries genes for antibiotic resistance, such as extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and metallo-beta-lactamases (MBLs).
It has genes encoding for surface structures such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), flagella, and capsules, which are involved in the biosynthesis of antigens, motility, and virulence.
It has genes encoding to production siderophores, such as enterobactin, aerobactin, and salmochelin, which are involved in iron uptake and metabolism.
There is no information about the antigenic types of Enterobacter bugandensis. Antigenic types are based on the differences in the surface antigens of bacteria, such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), flagella, and capsules. These antigens can elicit immune responses and are used for serological identification and classification of bacteria. For example, Escherichia coli has more than 170 antigenic types based on the O (LPS), H (flagella), and K (capsule) antigens.
However, the genome sequence of Enterobacter bugandensis strain EB-247, which was isolated from the International Space Station (ISS), revealed that it has genes encoding for LPS biosynthesis, flagellar assembly, and capsule formation.
Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis may have different antigenic types based on these surface structures, but further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
The pathogenesis of Enterobacter bugandensis has yet to be fully understood, but some possible factors have been identified. According to one study, this bacterium is highly virulent in both Galleria mellonella (a model organism for studying bacterial infections) and mouse models of infection. It can induce systemic infection and release of proinflammatory cytokines, like Salmonella Typhimurium. The study also found that the bacterium has a large plasmid that carries genes for antibiotic resistance. At the same time, the chromosome contains genes for virulence properties, such as iron uptake, metabolism, and toxin production.
Another study suggested that Enterobacter bugandensis can form biofilms and secrete multiple cellular toxins, such as enterotoxins, hemolysins, and pore-forming toxins. These toxins can damage the host cells and tissues and facilitate the invasion and dissemination of the bacterium. The study also mentioned that the bacterium has a type III secretion system and curli fimbriae, which are structures that help the bacterium attach to and inject effector proteins into the host cells. These effector proteins can modulate the host immune response and cause inflammation and tissue damage.
Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis is a highly pathogenic species of the genus Enterobacter that can cause severe clinical infections. Additional research is required to clarify the molecular pathways of its pathogenesis and its association with septicemic infection.
It is also a multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterium that can survive and grow in high concentrations of human serum. Therefore, it poses a potential threat to human health, especially for immunocompromised patients and astronauts in the International Space Station (ISS).
The host defenses of Enterobacter bugandensis have yet to be well understood, but genomic and transcriptomic analyses have suggested some possible mechanisms. These include:
Iron uptake and storage systems, such as siderophores, ferric iron transporters, and ferritins, help the bacterium acquire and store iron, an essential nutrient for bacterial growth and virulence.
Resistance to poisonous substances and medicines, such as beta-lactamases, efflux pumps, and modification enzymes, that confer resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents.
virulence factors, including poisons, adhesins, invasins, and secretion systems, that enable the bacterium to adhere to, invade, damage, and manipulate host cells and tissues.
Stress response and adaptation systems, such as heat shock proteins, oxidative stress proteins, and DNA repair enzymes, that help the bacterium to cope with environmental stresses and maintain genomic stability.
These host defenses of Enterobacter bugandensis may allow it to evade or overcome the host’s innate and adaptive immune responses, such as phagocytosis, complement, antibodies, and cytokines.
Enterobacter bugandensis is a novel species of Enterobacter that has a history of severe clinical infections, especially in neonates and immunocompromised patients.
Some of the clinical manifestations of Enterobacter bugandensis infections are:
Bacteremia: Blood bacterial contamination, which can result in sepsis, a potentially fatal illness that causes inflammation and organ failure.
Lower respiratory tract infections: Infections of the lungs and airways, such as pneumonia and bronchitis, can cause fever, cough, chest pain, and breathing difficulties.
Skin and soft-tissue infections: Infections of the skin and underlying tissues, such as cellulitis and abscesses, can cause redness, swelling, pain, and pus formation.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs): Infections of the urinary system, such as the bladder and kidneys, which can cause burning, frequency, urgency, and blood in the urine.
Endocarditis: infection of the heart’s internal lining and its valves, which can cause fever, chills, heart murmurs, and complications such as heart failure and stroke.
Intra-abdominal infections: Infections of the organs and spaces within the abdomen, such as peritonitis and appendicitis, can result in diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, and abdominal pain.
Septic arthritis: Infection of the joints, such as the knee and hip, which can cause joint pain, swelling, stiffness, and reduced mobility.
Osteomyelitis: Infection of the bone, which can cause bone pain, fever, and reduced function of the affected limb.
CNS infections: Central nerve system infections, such as meningitis and brain abscess, can cause headache, neck stiffness, confusion, seizures, and coma1.
Ophthalmic infections: Infections of the eye, such as conjunctivitis and keratitis, which can cause eye redness, discharge, pain, and vision loss.
Diagnosing Enterobacter bugandensis is challenging. This bacterium is a novel species of Enterobacter that has a history of severe clinical infections, such as neonatal sepsis and bloodstream infections. It is also a multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterium that can grow and thrive when exposed to high levels of human serum.
Some possible methods for the diagnosis of Enterobacter bugandensis are:
One molecular method for identifying Enterobacter bugandensis genes or sequences is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). For example, a one-step multiplex PCR assay has been developed for the identification and differentiation of Enterobacter cloacae complex (ECC) and Enterobacter bugandensis. This assay targets four genes: gyrB, rpoB, hsp60, and blaCTX-M-15, and can distinguish Enterobacter bugandensis from other ECC members by the presence of a 474 bp amplicon corresponding to the hsp60 gene.
Phenotypic methods, such as biochemical tests and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, can reveal the characteristics and resistance patterns of Enterobacter bugandensis. However, these methods may not be reliable or accurate, as Enterobacter bugandensis may share similar features with other Enterobacter species or MDR bacteria. Therefore, phenotypic methods should be combined with molecular methods for confirmation and validation.
Techniques used in mass spectrometry, like matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) MS, that can identify bacteria based on their protein profiles. However, these methods require the availability of reference databases and spectra for Enterobacter bugandensis, which may not be updated or comprehensive.
Therefore, mass spectrometry methods should be interpreted with caution and supplemented with other methods for verification.
To prevent Enterobacter bugandensis infections:
Infection Control Practices:
Emphasize hand hygiene, environmental disinfection, and isolation of infected patients in healthcare settings.
Ensure appropriate use of personal protective equipment to minimize transmission.
Antibiotic Stewardship Programs:
Implement surveillance and monitoring to track antibiotic resistance.
Promote rational use of antibiotics to prevent the emergence and spread of resistance.
Vaccination and Immunotherapy:
Explore vaccine development and administration targeting specific antigens or virulence factors of Enterobacter bugandensis.
Consider immunotherapy with antibodies to elicit protective immune responses in the host.
Novel Antimicrobial Agents:
Investigate natural or synthetic compounds, such as lasso peptide microcin J25, that inhibit essential functions or pathways of Enterobacter bugandensis.
Explore genetic modifications like tolC gene deletion to increase susceptibility to antibiotics.
Enterobacter bugandensis: a novel enterobacterial species associated with severe clinical infection (nature.com)
Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains | BMC Microbiology | Full Text (biomedcentral.com)
The study of the distribution and causes of health-related conditions or events in particular populations, as well as the application of this knowledge to the management of health issues, is known as epidemiology. The epidemiology of Enterobacter bugandensis is a relatively new and emerging field, as this bacterium was only recently described as a novel species of Enterobacter in 2018. Enterobacter bugandensis has been associated with severe clinical infections, especially in neonates and immunocompromised patients. Some of the infections caused by Enterobacter bugandensis include bacteremia, lower respiratory tract infections, endocarditis, intra-abdominal infections, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, CNS infections, ocular infections, infections of the skin, soft tissues, and urinary tract, among other places.
Enterobacter bugandensis is a multi-drug resistant bacterium that can produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), which are enzymes that can inactivate many types of antibiotics, such as penicillins and cephalosporins. It can also carry other resistance genes, such as blaNDM-5 and blaIMI-1, which confer resistance to carbapenems, a class of last-resort antibiotics. Enterobacter bugandensis can acquire and transfer these resistance genes through plasmids, which are mobile genetic elements that can move between bacteria. Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis poses a severe threat to public health and infection control.
The population structure and pangenome analysis of Enterobacter bugandensis reveal that it is a diverse and dynamic species, with five phylogroups (PG-A to E) identified based on core- and whole-genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST and wgMLST, respectively). The pangenome is the total set of genes present in a species, which can be divided into accessory genes (found in some strains but absent in others) and core genes (shared by all strains). The pangenome of Enterobacter bugandensis consists of 6,057 genes, of which 2,635 are core genes and 3,422 are accessory genes. The accessory genes include significant antimicrobial resistance and virulence determinants, such as ESBLs, carbapenemases, and siderophores. Iron is bound and transported by molecules called siderophores, and it is necessary for bacterial growth and survival. Enterobacter bugandensis can produce three types of siderophores: enterobactin, aerobactin, and salmochelin. The latter is conserved in all PG-E isolates, which may indicate a higher virulence potential of this phylogroup.
The epidemiology of Enterobacter bugandensis is still evolving, as more cases and outbreaks are being reported from different countries and regions. The first case of Enterobacter bugandensis infection was reported in India in 2017, where it caused neonatal sepsis in a hospital. Since then, Enterobacter bugandensis has been isolated from clinical and non-clinical sources in several countries, such as Germany, Brazil, China, and the United States. The global distribution and transmission patterns of Enterobacter bugandensis need to be better understood, and more surveillance and research are needed to elucidate the epidemiological characteristics and risk factors of this emerging pathogen.
Kingdon: Bacteria
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Enterobacterales
Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Enterobacter
Species: E. bugandensis
The structure of Enterobacter bugandensis can be summarized in five points as follows:
Enterobacter bugandensis is a rod-shaped and Gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae.
It has a circular chromosome consisting of 4,355 genes with a 56% G + C content out of 4,717,613 base pairs.
It also has a plasmid of 299 kb that carries genes for antibiotic resistance, such as extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and metallo-beta-lactamases (MBLs).
It has genes encoding for surface structures such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), flagella, and capsules, which are involved in the biosynthesis of antigens, motility, and virulence.
It has genes encoding to production siderophores, such as enterobactin, aerobactin, and salmochelin, which are involved in iron uptake and metabolism.
There is no information about the antigenic types of Enterobacter bugandensis. Antigenic types are based on the differences in the surface antigens of bacteria, such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS), flagella, and capsules. These antigens can elicit immune responses and are used for serological identification and classification of bacteria. For example, Escherichia coli has more than 170 antigenic types based on the O (LPS), H (flagella), and K (capsule) antigens.
However, the genome sequence of Enterobacter bugandensis strain EB-247, which was isolated from the International Space Station (ISS), revealed that it has genes encoding for LPS biosynthesis, flagellar assembly, and capsule formation.
Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis may have different antigenic types based on these surface structures, but further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
The pathogenesis of Enterobacter bugandensis has yet to be fully understood, but some possible factors have been identified. According to one study, this bacterium is highly virulent in both Galleria mellonella (a model organism for studying bacterial infections) and mouse models of infection. It can induce systemic infection and release of proinflammatory cytokines, like Salmonella Typhimurium. The study also found that the bacterium has a large plasmid that carries genes for antibiotic resistance. At the same time, the chromosome contains genes for virulence properties, such as iron uptake, metabolism, and toxin production.
Another study suggested that Enterobacter bugandensis can form biofilms and secrete multiple cellular toxins, such as enterotoxins, hemolysins, and pore-forming toxins. These toxins can damage the host cells and tissues and facilitate the invasion and dissemination of the bacterium. The study also mentioned that the bacterium has a type III secretion system and curli fimbriae, which are structures that help the bacterium attach to and inject effector proteins into the host cells. These effector proteins can modulate the host immune response and cause inflammation and tissue damage.
Therefore, Enterobacter bugandensis is a highly pathogenic species of the genus Enterobacter that can cause severe clinical infections. Additional research is required to clarify the molecular pathways of its pathogenesis and its association with septicemic infection.
It is also a multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterium that can survive and grow in high concentrations of human serum. Therefore, it poses a potential threat to human health, especially for immunocompromised patients and astronauts in the International Space Station (ISS).
The host defenses of Enterobacter bugandensis have yet to be well understood, but genomic and transcriptomic analyses have suggested some possible mechanisms. These include:
Iron uptake and storage systems, such as siderophores, ferric iron transporters, and ferritins, help the bacterium acquire and store iron, an essential nutrient for bacterial growth and virulence.
Resistance to poisonous substances and medicines, such as beta-lactamases, efflux pumps, and modification enzymes, that confer resistance to multiple classes of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents.
virulence factors, including poisons, adhesins, invasins, and secretion systems, that enable the bacterium to adhere to, invade, damage, and manipulate host cells and tissues.
Stress response and adaptation systems, such as heat shock proteins, oxidative stress proteins, and DNA repair enzymes, that help the bacterium to cope with environmental stresses and maintain genomic stability.
These host defenses of Enterobacter bugandensis may allow it to evade or overcome the host’s innate and adaptive immune responses, such as phagocytosis, complement, antibodies, and cytokines.
Enterobacter bugandensis is a novel species of Enterobacter that has a history of severe clinical infections, especially in neonates and immunocompromised patients.
Some of the clinical manifestations of Enterobacter bugandensis infections are:
Bacteremia: Blood bacterial contamination, which can result in sepsis, a potentially fatal illness that causes inflammation and organ failure.
Lower respiratory tract infections: Infections of the lungs and airways, such as pneumonia and bronchitis, can cause fever, cough, chest pain, and breathing difficulties.
Skin and soft-tissue infections: Infections of the skin and underlying tissues, such as cellulitis and abscesses, can cause redness, swelling, pain, and pus formation.
Urinary tract infections (UTIs): Infections of the urinary system, such as the bladder and kidneys, which can cause burning, frequency, urgency, and blood in the urine.
Endocarditis: infection of the heart’s internal lining and its valves, which can cause fever, chills, heart murmurs, and complications such as heart failure and stroke.
Intra-abdominal infections: Infections of the organs and spaces within the abdomen, such as peritonitis and appendicitis, can result in diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, and abdominal pain.
Septic arthritis: Infection of the joints, such as the knee and hip, which can cause joint pain, swelling, stiffness, and reduced mobility.
Osteomyelitis: Infection of the bone, which can cause bone pain, fever, and reduced function of the affected limb.
CNS infections: Central nerve system infections, such as meningitis and brain abscess, can cause headache, neck stiffness, confusion, seizures, and coma1.
Ophthalmic infections: Infections of the eye, such as conjunctivitis and keratitis, which can cause eye redness, discharge, pain, and vision loss.
Diagnosing Enterobacter bugandensis is challenging. This bacterium is a novel species of Enterobacter that has a history of severe clinical infections, such as neonatal sepsis and bloodstream infections. It is also a multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacterium that can grow and thrive when exposed to high levels of human serum.
Some possible methods for the diagnosis of Enterobacter bugandensis are:
One molecular method for identifying Enterobacter bugandensis genes or sequences is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). For example, a one-step multiplex PCR assay has been developed for the identification and differentiation of Enterobacter cloacae complex (ECC) and Enterobacter bugandensis. This assay targets four genes: gyrB, rpoB, hsp60, and blaCTX-M-15, and can distinguish Enterobacter bugandensis from other ECC members by the presence of a 474 bp amplicon corresponding to the hsp60 gene.
Phenotypic methods, such as biochemical tests and antimicrobial susceptibility testing, can reveal the characteristics and resistance patterns of Enterobacter bugandensis. However, these methods may not be reliable or accurate, as Enterobacter bugandensis may share similar features with other Enterobacter species or MDR bacteria. Therefore, phenotypic methods should be combined with molecular methods for confirmation and validation.
Techniques used in mass spectrometry, like matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) MS, that can identify bacteria based on their protein profiles. However, these methods require the availability of reference databases and spectra for Enterobacter bugandensis, which may not be updated or comprehensive.
Therefore, mass spectrometry methods should be interpreted with caution and supplemented with other methods for verification.
To prevent Enterobacter bugandensis infections:
Infection Control Practices:
Emphasize hand hygiene, environmental disinfection, and isolation of infected patients in healthcare settings.
Ensure appropriate use of personal protective equipment to minimize transmission.
Antibiotic Stewardship Programs:
Implement surveillance and monitoring to track antibiotic resistance.
Promote rational use of antibiotics to prevent the emergence and spread of resistance.
Vaccination and Immunotherapy:
Explore vaccine development and administration targeting specific antigens or virulence factors of Enterobacter bugandensis.
Consider immunotherapy with antibodies to elicit protective immune responses in the host.
Novel Antimicrobial Agents:
Investigate natural or synthetic compounds, such as lasso peptide microcin J25, that inhibit essential functions or pathways of Enterobacter bugandensis.
Explore genetic modifications like tolC gene deletion to increase susceptibility to antibiotics.
Enterobacter bugandensis: a novel enterobacterial species associated with severe clinical infection (nature.com)
Multi-drug resistant Enterobacter bugandensis species isolated from the International Space Station and comparative genomic analyses with human pathogenic strains | BMC Microbiology | Full Text (biomedcentral.com)
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On course completion, you will receive a full-sized presentation quality digital certificate.
medtigo Simulation
A dynamic medical simulation platform designed to train healthcare professionals and students to effectively run code situations through an immersive hands-on experience in a live, interactive 3D environment.
medtigo Points
medtigo points is our unique point redemption system created to award users for interacting on our site. These points can be redeemed for special discounts on the medtigo marketplace as well as towards the membership cost itself.
Community Forum post/reply = 5 points
*Redemption of points can occur only through the medtigo marketplace, courses, or simulation system. Money will not be credited to your bank account. 10 points = $1.
All Your Certificates in One Place
When you have your licenses, certificates and CMEs in one place, it's easier to track your career growth. You can easily share these with hospitals as well, using your medtigo app.
