Effectiveness of Tai Chi vs Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Insomnia in Middle-Aged and Older Adults
November 27, 2025
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Background
Enuresis comes from the Greek verb ‘enourein’, which translates into ‘void urine’, and it describes involuntary urination which may occur at any time of the day, although it is more commonly used when referring to bed wetting at night. There are two types of enuresis; such as primary and secondary. Primary enuresis involves a child who has never slept through the night without wetting the bed while secondary enuresis is a child or an adult who used to sleep through the night but began wetting the bed again.
The International Children’s Continence Society (ICCS) defines enuresis as wetting only at night. It is believed that the causes of PE and SE are one and the same. It has been known to cause emotional problems among children and their families. These children end up being punished and they are even likely to be emotionally and physically abused. Research reveals that these children have high probabilities of developing embarrassment, anxiety, and low self-esteem, which impacts their self-image, interpersonal relationships, well-being, and academic outcomes.
Epidemiology
It is estimated that 20% of children are enuretic at the age of 5 with prevalence of the condition rising to 5 to 10% at age 7. Enuresis in adults is estimated to affect 2% of the general population. The condition is more common in boys than in girls.
Anatomy
Pathophysiology
Studying the mechanisms of enuresis it was established that patients suffering from this disease have a decreased level of nocturnal ADH. This deficiency led to excessive formation of urine at night and hence frequent urination. From this perspective, drugs like desmopressin that mimics the action of ADH are often used in the treatment of the condition. Other theories on the causation of enuresis propose that the disease is caused by reduced bladder capacity or the ability to wake from sleep.
Etiology
Most enuresis patients present no obvious causes for their conditions and are deemed idiopathic. However, some of the key risk factors in children include constipation and neurodevelopmental conditions. Other possible factors for consideration include sleep arousal disorders, delayed bladder maturation, small bladder capacity and decreased release of vasopressin. There are also differential diagnoses that can be related to enuresis such as medical conditions or use of certain medications.
The following are considered as factors which predispose a child to enuresis, stress, low standard of living, parental separation or divorce, arrival of a newborn baby in the family and past history of enuresis in the family. It has a hereditary factor attached to it, where the chances of bedwetting are 44% if one parent was a bedwetter, and 77% if both parents were. While no exact point mutation has been isolated, researchers have found potential significant gene regions on 8, 12, 13 and 16 chromosomes. Another reason that leads to enuresis is constipation, as it can put pressure on the bladder.
Genetics
Prognostic Factors
Enuresis can cause severe rashes over the perineal, genital, and lower abdominal skin, including breakdown of the skin in severe cases and very rarely infection. In case of relapse, the patient must continue with the previous treatments, which is one of the impacts of the treatment. It is important to treat enuresis primarily because it affects the self-esteem of the child and might lead to psychological/behavioral problems. Treatment results in an increase in self-esteem at a rate like that of non-enuretic children at the end of six months.
Originally, for enuresis it is seen that there is an estimated spontaneous cure rate of approximately 15% per year. However, children who wet the bed every night cannot easily be treated and many of them experience the condition during their adolescence. If enuresis is the only symptom, the patient can be treated by behavioral interventions, which include bedwetting alarms, or pharmacological interventions that include desmopressin and imipramine
Clinical History
Age group
Primary Enuresis: Most frequent in children ranging from 5 to 7 years of age and occasionally in young adolescents.
Secondary Enuresis: It happens in older children or adolescent who was previously urinary incontinence free.
Physical Examination
In performing the physical examination of a child with enuresis, it is recommended that a thorough examination of the kid be carried out to determine the presence of any disease that may be causing the condition. This is done by evaluating the child’s overall progress, observing the abdomen for signs of distended bladder or constipation and examining the genitourinary area for any sign of statues like phimosis, labial fusion or rash or signs of irritation.
A basic neurological exam should be performed to ensure that there are no spinal cord abnormalities, and the lumbosacral spine should be examined for signs of abnormalities such as sacral dimples or tufts of hair. Looking for signs of enlarged tonsils, which may indicate obstructive sleep apnea, or some signs of dehydration or an underlying skin condition.
Age group
Associated comorbidity
Associated activity
Acuity of presentation
Differential Diagnoses
Laboratory Studies
Imaging Studies
Procedures
Histologic Findings
Staging
Treatment Paradigm
Behavioural Interventions
Pharmacological Treatments
Addressing Underlying Medical Conditions
by Stage
by Modality
Chemotherapy
Radiation Therapy
Surgical Interventions
Hormone Therapy
Immunotherapy
Hyperthermia
Photodynamic Therapy
Stem Cell Transplant
Targeted Therapy
Palliative Care
use-of-a-non-pharmacological-approach-for-treating-enuresis
Role of Vasopressin-Related Drugs
Desmopressin: Desmopressin acetate is a synthetic hormone that mimics antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is used to reduce the rate of urine production during the night. Studies showed that some children with bedwetting have comparatively smaller concentration of ADH at night than than those who are not involved in bedwetting and therefore approved of desmopressin. However, not all children with enuresis have low levels of ADH or high nighttime urine output and some of them do not go in to remission following desmopressin therapy.
Moreover, not all who respond over time have abnormally low ADH levels or high free water clearance at night prior to taking the medication. Oral desmopressin is available in tablets and in dissolvable film form, and the nasal spray definitively acts by increasing the permeability of the collecting ducts of the kidney, thereby aiding water reabsorption. Because of potential complications related to sever hyponatremia the nasal spray formulation is no longer used for primary enuresis treatment.
Role of TCAs, Antidepressants
Imipramine (Tofranil): It aids in the enhancement of urine reservoir capacity through decreasing the contractions of the bladder and at the same time there is increased resistance at the outlet of the bladder. The mechanism of its action is based on the interference with the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin at presynaptic neuron.
Role of Antispasmodic Agents, Urinary
Oxybutynin (Ditropan XL, Gelnique, Oxytrol): It is prescribed for children who might have the decreased functional bladder capacity either during the daytime or at night. It can be helpful for controlling the frequency, urgency, and incontinence during the day, and bedwetting during the night. It is also important to understand that oxybutynin is not recommended for use in children below twelve years of age.
Tolterodine (Detrol): It is a potent and selective competitive muscarinic receptor antagonist that selectively acts on the urinary bladder and does not affect the salivary glands. It is used for urinary urgency, frequency during the daytime, sudden urge to urinate, and other complications such as urinary incontinence and bed wetting during the night. It is effective for those with decreased functional bladder capacity during the daytime or at night.
Flavoxate (Urispas): It is used to offer therapeutic relief for the condition in patients with incontinence. It has direct anticholinergic activity and affects the smooth muscles by relieving the muscular contractions in the urinary system.
use-of-intervention-with-a-procedure-in-treating-enuresis
use-of-phases-in-managing-enuresis
Medication
Indicated for Nocturnal enuresis:
6-7 years:10mg orally whenever necessary
8-11 years: 10-20mg orally whenever necessary
>11 years: 25-30mg orally whenever necessary
Take 25 mg daily initially
It is advisable to take this medication approximately an hour before going to bed
Future Trends
Enuresis comes from the Greek verb ‘enourein’, which translates into ‘void urine’, and it describes involuntary urination which may occur at any time of the day, although it is more commonly used when referring to bed wetting at night. There are two types of enuresis; such as primary and secondary. Primary enuresis involves a child who has never slept through the night without wetting the bed while secondary enuresis is a child or an adult who used to sleep through the night but began wetting the bed again.
The International Children’s Continence Society (ICCS) defines enuresis as wetting only at night. It is believed that the causes of PE and SE are one and the same. It has been known to cause emotional problems among children and their families. These children end up being punished and they are even likely to be emotionally and physically abused. Research reveals that these children have high probabilities of developing embarrassment, anxiety, and low self-esteem, which impacts their self-image, interpersonal relationships, well-being, and academic outcomes.
It is estimated that 20% of children are enuretic at the age of 5 with prevalence of the condition rising to 5 to 10% at age 7. Enuresis in adults is estimated to affect 2% of the general population. The condition is more common in boys than in girls.
Studying the mechanisms of enuresis it was established that patients suffering from this disease have a decreased level of nocturnal ADH. This deficiency led to excessive formation of urine at night and hence frequent urination. From this perspective, drugs like desmopressin that mimics the action of ADH are often used in the treatment of the condition. Other theories on the causation of enuresis propose that the disease is caused by reduced bladder capacity or the ability to wake from sleep.
Most enuresis patients present no obvious causes for their conditions and are deemed idiopathic. However, some of the key risk factors in children include constipation and neurodevelopmental conditions. Other possible factors for consideration include sleep arousal disorders, delayed bladder maturation, small bladder capacity and decreased release of vasopressin. There are also differential diagnoses that can be related to enuresis such as medical conditions or use of certain medications.
The following are considered as factors which predispose a child to enuresis, stress, low standard of living, parental separation or divorce, arrival of a newborn baby in the family and past history of enuresis in the family. It has a hereditary factor attached to it, where the chances of bedwetting are 44% if one parent was a bedwetter, and 77% if both parents were. While no exact point mutation has been isolated, researchers have found potential significant gene regions on 8, 12, 13 and 16 chromosomes. Another reason that leads to enuresis is constipation, as it can put pressure on the bladder.
Enuresis can cause severe rashes over the perineal, genital, and lower abdominal skin, including breakdown of the skin in severe cases and very rarely infection. In case of relapse, the patient must continue with the previous treatments, which is one of the impacts of the treatment. It is important to treat enuresis primarily because it affects the self-esteem of the child and might lead to psychological/behavioral problems. Treatment results in an increase in self-esteem at a rate like that of non-enuretic children at the end of six months.
Originally, for enuresis it is seen that there is an estimated spontaneous cure rate of approximately 15% per year. However, children who wet the bed every night cannot easily be treated and many of them experience the condition during their adolescence. If enuresis is the only symptom, the patient can be treated by behavioral interventions, which include bedwetting alarms, or pharmacological interventions that include desmopressin and imipramine
Age group
Primary Enuresis: Most frequent in children ranging from 5 to 7 years of age and occasionally in young adolescents.
Secondary Enuresis: It happens in older children or adolescent who was previously urinary incontinence free.
In performing the physical examination of a child with enuresis, it is recommended that a thorough examination of the kid be carried out to determine the presence of any disease that may be causing the condition. This is done by evaluating the child’s overall progress, observing the abdomen for signs of distended bladder or constipation and examining the genitourinary area for any sign of statues like phimosis, labial fusion or rash or signs of irritation.
A basic neurological exam should be performed to ensure that there are no spinal cord abnormalities, and the lumbosacral spine should be examined for signs of abnormalities such as sacral dimples or tufts of hair. Looking for signs of enlarged tonsils, which may indicate obstructive sleep apnea, or some signs of dehydration or an underlying skin condition.
Behavioural Interventions
Pharmacological Treatments
Addressing Underlying Medical Conditions
Allergy and Immunology
Anesthesiology
Cardiology, Echocardiography
Cardiology, Electrophysiology
Cardiology, General
Cardiology, Interventional
Cardiology, Nuclear
Critical Care/Intensive Care
Dermatology, General
Dermatology, Cosmetic
Diabetes
Diabetes Educator
Emergency Medicine
Endocrinology, Metabolism
Endocrinology, Reproductive/Infertility
Family Medicine
Gastroenterology
General Practice
Genomic Medicine
Geriatrics
Hematology
Hepatology
HIV/AIDS
Hospice/Palliative Medicine
Hospital Medicine
Infectious Disease
Internal Medicine
Neonatal/Perinatal Medicine
Nephrology
Neurology
Neurosurgery
Nuclear Medicine
Nutrition
OB/GYN and Women\'s Health
Oncology, Hematology/Oncology
Oncology, Medical
Oncology, Other
Oncology, Radiation
Ophthalmology
Orthopaedic Surgery
Otolaryngology
Pain Management
Pathology
Pediatrics, Allergy
Pediatrics, Cardiology
Pediatrics, General
Pediatrics, Oncology
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Plastic Surgery and Anesthetic Medicine
Preventative Medicine
Psychiatry/Mental Health
Public/Community Health
Pulmonary Medicine
Radiology
Radiology, Interventional
Rheumatology
Surgery, Cardiothoracic
Surgery, General
Surgery, Oral and Maxillofacial
Surgery, Other
Surgery, Surgical Oncology
Surgery, Vascular
Transplantation
Urology
Vascular Medicine
Other Clinical
Non-Clinical
Pediatrics, General
Surgery, General
Desmopressin: Desmopressin acetate is a synthetic hormone that mimics antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is used to reduce the rate of urine production during the night. Studies showed that some children with bedwetting have comparatively smaller concentration of ADH at night than than those who are not involved in bedwetting and therefore approved of desmopressin. However, not all children with enuresis have low levels of ADH or high nighttime urine output and some of them do not go in to remission following desmopressin therapy.
Moreover, not all who respond over time have abnormally low ADH levels or high free water clearance at night prior to taking the medication. Oral desmopressin is available in tablets and in dissolvable film form, and the nasal spray definitively acts by increasing the permeability of the collecting ducts of the kidney, thereby aiding water reabsorption. Because of potential complications related to sever hyponatremia the nasal spray formulation is no longer used for primary enuresis treatment.
Pediatrics, General
Surgery, General
Imipramine (Tofranil): It aids in the enhancement of urine reservoir capacity through decreasing the contractions of the bladder and at the same time there is increased resistance at the outlet of the bladder. The mechanism of its action is based on the interference with the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin at presynaptic neuron.
Pediatrics, General
Surgery, General
Oxybutynin (Ditropan XL, Gelnique, Oxytrol): It is prescribed for children who might have the decreased functional bladder capacity either during the daytime or at night. It can be helpful for controlling the frequency, urgency, and incontinence during the day, and bedwetting during the night. It is also important to understand that oxybutynin is not recommended for use in children below twelve years of age.
Tolterodine (Detrol): It is a potent and selective competitive muscarinic receptor antagonist that selectively acts on the urinary bladder and does not affect the salivary glands. It is used for urinary urgency, frequency during the daytime, sudden urge to urinate, and other complications such as urinary incontinence and bed wetting during the night. It is effective for those with decreased functional bladder capacity during the daytime or at night.
Flavoxate (Urispas): It is used to offer therapeutic relief for the condition in patients with incontinence. It has direct anticholinergic activity and affects the smooth muscles by relieving the muscular contractions in the urinary system.
Allergy and Immunology
Anesthesiology
Cardiology, Echocardiography
Cardiology, Electrophysiology
Cardiology, General
Cardiology, Interventional
Cardiology, Nuclear
Critical Care/Intensive Care
Dermatology, General
Dermatology, Cosmetic
Diabetes
Diabetes Educator
Emergency Medicine
Endocrinology, Metabolism
Endocrinology, Reproductive/Infertility
Family Medicine
Gastroenterology
General Practice
Genomic Medicine
Geriatrics
Hematology
Hepatology
HIV/AIDS
Hospice/Palliative Medicine
Hospital Medicine
Infectious Disease
Internal Medicine
Neonatal/Perinatal Medicine
Nephrology
Neurology
Neurosurgery
Nuclear Medicine
Nutrition
OB/GYN and Women\'s Health
Oncology, Hematology/Oncology
Oncology, Medical
Oncology, Other
Oncology, Radiation
Ophthalmology
Orthopaedic Surgery
Otolaryngology
Pain Management
Pathology
Pediatrics, Allergy
Pediatrics, Cardiology
Pediatrics, General
Pediatrics, Oncology
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Plastic Surgery and Anesthetic Medicine
Preventative Medicine
Psychiatry/Mental Health
Public/Community Health
Pulmonary Medicine
Radiology
Radiology, Interventional
Rheumatology
Surgery, Cardiothoracic
Surgery, General
Surgery, Oral and Maxillofacial
Surgery, Other
Surgery, Surgical Oncology
Surgery, Vascular
Transplantation
Urology
Vascular Medicine
Other Clinical
Non-Clinical
Enuresis comes from the Greek verb ‘enourein’, which translates into ‘void urine’, and it describes involuntary urination which may occur at any time of the day, although it is more commonly used when referring to bed wetting at night. There are two types of enuresis; such as primary and secondary. Primary enuresis involves a child who has never slept through the night without wetting the bed while secondary enuresis is a child or an adult who used to sleep through the night but began wetting the bed again.
The International Children’s Continence Society (ICCS) defines enuresis as wetting only at night. It is believed that the causes of PE and SE are one and the same. It has been known to cause emotional problems among children and their families. These children end up being punished and they are even likely to be emotionally and physically abused. Research reveals that these children have high probabilities of developing embarrassment, anxiety, and low self-esteem, which impacts their self-image, interpersonal relationships, well-being, and academic outcomes.
It is estimated that 20% of children are enuretic at the age of 5 with prevalence of the condition rising to 5 to 10% at age 7. Enuresis in adults is estimated to affect 2% of the general population. The condition is more common in boys than in girls.
Studying the mechanisms of enuresis it was established that patients suffering from this disease have a decreased level of nocturnal ADH. This deficiency led to excessive formation of urine at night and hence frequent urination. From this perspective, drugs like desmopressin that mimics the action of ADH are often used in the treatment of the condition. Other theories on the causation of enuresis propose that the disease is caused by reduced bladder capacity or the ability to wake from sleep.
Most enuresis patients present no obvious causes for their conditions and are deemed idiopathic. However, some of the key risk factors in children include constipation and neurodevelopmental conditions. Other possible factors for consideration include sleep arousal disorders, delayed bladder maturation, small bladder capacity and decreased release of vasopressin. There are also differential diagnoses that can be related to enuresis such as medical conditions or use of certain medications.
The following are considered as factors which predispose a child to enuresis, stress, low standard of living, parental separation or divorce, arrival of a newborn baby in the family and past history of enuresis in the family. It has a hereditary factor attached to it, where the chances of bedwetting are 44% if one parent was a bedwetter, and 77% if both parents were. While no exact point mutation has been isolated, researchers have found potential significant gene regions on 8, 12, 13 and 16 chromosomes. Another reason that leads to enuresis is constipation, as it can put pressure on the bladder.
Enuresis can cause severe rashes over the perineal, genital, and lower abdominal skin, including breakdown of the skin in severe cases and very rarely infection. In case of relapse, the patient must continue with the previous treatments, which is one of the impacts of the treatment. It is important to treat enuresis primarily because it affects the self-esteem of the child and might lead to psychological/behavioral problems. Treatment results in an increase in self-esteem at a rate like that of non-enuretic children at the end of six months.
Originally, for enuresis it is seen that there is an estimated spontaneous cure rate of approximately 15% per year. However, children who wet the bed every night cannot easily be treated and many of them experience the condition during their adolescence. If enuresis is the only symptom, the patient can be treated by behavioral interventions, which include bedwetting alarms, or pharmacological interventions that include desmopressin and imipramine
Age group
Primary Enuresis: Most frequent in children ranging from 5 to 7 years of age and occasionally in young adolescents.
Secondary Enuresis: It happens in older children or adolescent who was previously urinary incontinence free.
In performing the physical examination of a child with enuresis, it is recommended that a thorough examination of the kid be carried out to determine the presence of any disease that may be causing the condition. This is done by evaluating the child’s overall progress, observing the abdomen for signs of distended bladder or constipation and examining the genitourinary area for any sign of statues like phimosis, labial fusion or rash or signs of irritation.
A basic neurological exam should be performed to ensure that there are no spinal cord abnormalities, and the lumbosacral spine should be examined for signs of abnormalities such as sacral dimples or tufts of hair. Looking for signs of enlarged tonsils, which may indicate obstructive sleep apnea, or some signs of dehydration or an underlying skin condition.
Behavioural Interventions
Pharmacological Treatments
Addressing Underlying Medical Conditions
Allergy and Immunology
Anesthesiology
Cardiology, Echocardiography
Cardiology, Electrophysiology
Cardiology, General
Cardiology, Interventional
Cardiology, Nuclear
Critical Care/Intensive Care
Dermatology, General
Dermatology, Cosmetic
Diabetes
Diabetes Educator
Emergency Medicine
Endocrinology, Metabolism
Endocrinology, Reproductive/Infertility
Family Medicine
Gastroenterology
General Practice
Genomic Medicine
Geriatrics
Hematology
Hepatology
HIV/AIDS
Hospice/Palliative Medicine
Hospital Medicine
Infectious Disease
Internal Medicine
Neonatal/Perinatal Medicine
Nephrology
Neurology
Neurosurgery
Nuclear Medicine
Nutrition
OB/GYN and Women\'s Health
Oncology, Hematology/Oncology
Oncology, Medical
Oncology, Other
Oncology, Radiation
Ophthalmology
Orthopaedic Surgery
Otolaryngology
Pain Management
Pathology
Pediatrics, Allergy
Pediatrics, Cardiology
Pediatrics, General
Pediatrics, Oncology
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Plastic Surgery and Anesthetic Medicine
Preventative Medicine
Psychiatry/Mental Health
Public/Community Health
Pulmonary Medicine
Radiology
Radiology, Interventional
Rheumatology
Surgery, Cardiothoracic
Surgery, General
Surgery, Oral and Maxillofacial
Surgery, Other
Surgery, Surgical Oncology
Surgery, Vascular
Transplantation
Urology
Vascular Medicine
Other Clinical
Non-Clinical
Pediatrics, General
Surgery, General
Desmopressin: Desmopressin acetate is a synthetic hormone that mimics antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is used to reduce the rate of urine production during the night. Studies showed that some children with bedwetting have comparatively smaller concentration of ADH at night than than those who are not involved in bedwetting and therefore approved of desmopressin. However, not all children with enuresis have low levels of ADH or high nighttime urine output and some of them do not go in to remission following desmopressin therapy.
Moreover, not all who respond over time have abnormally low ADH levels or high free water clearance at night prior to taking the medication. Oral desmopressin is available in tablets and in dissolvable film form, and the nasal spray definitively acts by increasing the permeability of the collecting ducts of the kidney, thereby aiding water reabsorption. Because of potential complications related to sever hyponatremia the nasal spray formulation is no longer used for primary enuresis treatment.
Pediatrics, General
Surgery, General
Imipramine (Tofranil): It aids in the enhancement of urine reservoir capacity through decreasing the contractions of the bladder and at the same time there is increased resistance at the outlet of the bladder. The mechanism of its action is based on the interference with the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin at presynaptic neuron.
Pediatrics, General
Surgery, General
Oxybutynin (Ditropan XL, Gelnique, Oxytrol): It is prescribed for children who might have the decreased functional bladder capacity either during the daytime or at night. It can be helpful for controlling the frequency, urgency, and incontinence during the day, and bedwetting during the night. It is also important to understand that oxybutynin is not recommended for use in children below twelve years of age.
Tolterodine (Detrol): It is a potent and selective competitive muscarinic receptor antagonist that selectively acts on the urinary bladder and does not affect the salivary glands. It is used for urinary urgency, frequency during the daytime, sudden urge to urinate, and other complications such as urinary incontinence and bed wetting during the night. It is effective for those with decreased functional bladder capacity during the daytime or at night.
Flavoxate (Urispas): It is used to offer therapeutic relief for the condition in patients with incontinence. It has direct anticholinergic activity and affects the smooth muscles by relieving the muscular contractions in the urinary system.
Allergy and Immunology
Anesthesiology
Cardiology, Echocardiography
Cardiology, Electrophysiology
Cardiology, General
Cardiology, Interventional
Cardiology, Nuclear
Critical Care/Intensive Care
Dermatology, General
Dermatology, Cosmetic
Diabetes
Diabetes Educator
Emergency Medicine
Endocrinology, Metabolism
Endocrinology, Reproductive/Infertility
Family Medicine
Gastroenterology
General Practice
Genomic Medicine
Geriatrics
Hematology
Hepatology
HIV/AIDS
Hospice/Palliative Medicine
Hospital Medicine
Infectious Disease
Internal Medicine
Neonatal/Perinatal Medicine
Nephrology
Neurology
Neurosurgery
Nuclear Medicine
Nutrition
OB/GYN and Women\'s Health
Oncology, Hematology/Oncology
Oncology, Medical
Oncology, Other
Oncology, Radiation
Ophthalmology
Orthopaedic Surgery
Otolaryngology
Pain Management
Pathology
Pediatrics, Allergy
Pediatrics, Cardiology
Pediatrics, General
Pediatrics, Oncology
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Plastic Surgery and Anesthetic Medicine
Preventative Medicine
Psychiatry/Mental Health
Public/Community Health
Pulmonary Medicine
Radiology
Radiology, Interventional
Rheumatology
Surgery, Cardiothoracic
Surgery, General
Surgery, Oral and Maxillofacial
Surgery, Other
Surgery, Surgical Oncology
Surgery, Vascular
Transplantation
Urology
Vascular Medicine
Other Clinical
Non-Clinical
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