Scardovia wiggsiae infection has been associated with early childhood caries (ECC), a severe form of tooth decay that affects young children. The epidemiological aspects of Scardovia wiggsiae infection reveal its prevalence and incidence rates in different populations and regions.Studies have proved a significantly higher prevalence of Scardovia wiggsiae in dental plaque and saliva samples from children with ECC than in caries-free children.
One study reported a prevalence of 85.7% in dental plaque samples from children with ECC, while the prevalence was only 28.6% in samples from caries-free children. Similarly, another study found that Scardovia wiggsiae was detected in 72% of saliva samples from children with ECC, whereas it was found in only 16% of samples from caries-free children.
The incidence of ECC varies depending on factors such as region, age group, socioeconomic status, and oral hygiene practices. Incidence rates have been estimated to be 12.9 per 100 person-years in children aged 1-5 years in India and 23.8 per 100 person-years in children aged 2-5 years in the United States.
Accurate reporting of ECC cases and Scardovia wiggsiae infections can be challenging and may only sometimes reflect the true magnitude of the problem. Studies have shown that many ECC cases still need to be reported to national oral health surveillance systems, indicating potential underreporting.
Scardovia wiggsiae has been quantified and compared to its levels and other oral bacteria in ECC and caries-free samples. The results have shown that Scardovia wiggsiae has a higher mean relative abundance, mean absolute abundance, and detection frequency in ECC samples than in caries-free samples, suggesting its association with the disease.
Scardovia wiggsiae infection and ECC are influenced by various factors, including dietary habits, oral hygiene practices, fluoride exposure, maternal oral health status, genetic susceptibility, and certain medical conditions like chronic kidney disease on dialysis.
Kingdom: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Bifidobacteriales
Family: Bifidobacteriaceae
Genus:Scardovia
Species:Scardovia wiggsiae
Scardovia wiggsiae is an acid-tolerant, anaerobic, gram-positive bacillus capable of fermenting several types of carbohydrates without generating gas.
The bacterium’s size can vary, with measurements of approximately 0.6–0.7 μm in width and 1.6–4 μm in length.
Scardovia wiggsiae can arrange in single cells, pairs, or short chains. It is a non-motile and non-spore-forming bacterium; it has a thick peptidoglycan layer in its cell wall, providing structural support and protection.
S. wiggsiae has a G+C content of 52.9% in its genome, which refers to the percentage of guanine and cytosine nucleotides in its DNA.
Scardovia wiggsiae has various virulent proteins contributing to its relationship with ECC and cariogenic characteristics. The ScaA protein is one of the virulent proteins expressed by S. wiggsiae. This surface protein is related to one discovered in Streptococcus mutans, a significant cariogenic bacterium. S. wiggsiae can stick to tooth surfaces & form biofilms in the presence of the ScaA protein, aiding colonization & survival in the oral cavity.
Scardovia wiggsiae has unique genes that contribute to its virulence and cariogenicity. One such genetic mechanism that improves the bacterium’s capacity to thrive in the oral environment is the F6PPK shunt. The F6PPK shunt allows Scardovia wiggsiae to skip the lactate-formate pathway, which contains fluoride-sensitive enolase activity, & instead directs metabolic flux to the fluoride-tolerant acetate pathway. This adaptation enables the bacterium to resist the presence of fluoride, which is a frequent component of dental hygiene products & can limit the growth of cariogenic bacteria.
Scardovia wiggsiae has a thick peptidoglycan coating in its cell wall, providing structural assistance. This peptidoglycan layer primarily comprises the A4α L-Lys-Ser-Glu peptide linkage, a particular amino acid sequence present in cross-linking peptides. Within this layer, however, there can be some substitution of L-lysine for L-ornithine with partial replacement of serine for threonine. Peptidoglycan, or murein, is a unique property of bacterial cell walls made up of repeated units of amino sugars connected by short peptide chains.
Two crucial enzymes are involved in the F6PPK shunt: fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase (F6PPK) and xylulose-5-phosphate phosphoketolase (X5PPK). The corresponding genes encoding these enzymes are f6ppk and x5ppk, respectively. Through the F6PPK shunt, Scardovia wiggsiae can efficiently utilize available nutrients in the oral environment and optimize its metabolic pathways to favor its cariogenic potential.
Regarding strains, specific isolates of Scardovia wiggsiae have been associated with ECC in different regions. For instance, strain F0424 was isolated from a child with ECC in Japan, while strains C1A-55, C1A-80, C1A-79, and C1A-81 were isolated from children with ECC in the United Kingdom.
Scardovia wiggsiae has been associated with severe episodes of early childhood caries (ECC), commonly called baby bottle tooth decay. The pathogenesis of S. wiggsiae involves several key factors. Firstly, like other cariogenic bacteria, it produces acids through the fermentation of carbohydrates in the oral cavity. These acids lead to the demineralization of tooth enamel, ultimately causing the formation of cavities.
Additionally, Scardovia wiggsiae can form biofilms on tooth surfaces. Biofilms of Scardovia are embedded in a protective matrix, making them more resistant to host defense mechanisms and antimicrobial treatments. Forming biofilms allows S. wiggsiae to persist and thrive in the oral environment, contributing to its pathogenic potential.
Studies have suggested that Scardovia wiggsiae may interact symbiotically with other cariogenic bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans. This collaboration could create a more cariogenic environment in the oral cavity, exacerbating the risk of dental caries.
Dietary factors are crucially responsible for the growth and activity of S. wiggsiae. Frequent consumption of fermentable carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, provides a food source for the bacterium, promoting its proliferation and acid production.
The susceptibility to dental caries is influenced by bacterial factors and the host’s characteristics. Disadvantaged ethnic and socioeconomic groups have been shown to have a higher caries incidence. Scardovia wiggsiae has been detected in a significant proportion of children with ECC and adults with advanced carious lesions, highlighting its role in the progression of the disease.
The primary natural barrier against Scardovia wiggsiae is the mucous membranes that line the body’s internal cavities, including the mouth, nose, throat, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. These mucous membranes secrete mucus, a physical barrier that traps and removes the S. wiggsiae from these surfaces. Mucus can effectively prevent the attachment and colonization of S. wiggsiae, thus reducing the risk of infection.
The mucous membranes also produce antimicrobial substances, such as lysozyme and lactoferrin. These substances can kill or inhibit the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae, providing an additional layer of defense; Lysozyme can break down the cell walls of certain bacteria, while lactoferrin can sequester iron, which is essential for bacterial growth, thus limiting the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae.
Nonspecific immune responses are critical in fighting against Scardovia wiggsiae. Phagocytic cells, which include macrophages and neutrophils, are specialized immune cells capable of engulfing and eliminating invading S. wiggsiae. These cells play a crucial role in the early stages of infection, helping to clear the bacterium from the affected tissues.
Research in mice has also shown that Scardovia wiggsiae can contribute to the progression of the periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory condition affecting the gums and supporting structures of the teeth. In response to S. wiggsiae, the host induces neutrophil infiltration, proinflammatory cytokine secretion, osteoclast activation (cells involved in bone destruction), and alveolar bone destruction.
In the presence of Scardovia wiggsiae, inflammatory responses are induced. These responses include increased blood flow, swelling, heat, & discomfort at the site of infection. Inflammation acts as a defense mechanism, slowing the progress of infection and promoting healing. Cytokines, chemical messengers that coordinate the immune response, are released by inflammatory cells. These cytokines stimulate the immune response to S. wiggsiae by activating other immune cells like T cells & B cells.
Scardovia wiggsiae is a bacterium found in the human oral cavity and clinical material, and it has been linked to a condition known as early childhood caries (ECC), a severe form of tooth decay that affects young children.Clinical manifestations of Scardovia wiggsiae infection may include the presence of white spot lesions on the enamel surface of the teeth.
These white spots indicate demineralization and loss of tooth structure due to the acidic byproducts produced by the bacterium. As the disease progresses, it leads to cavitation or the formation of holes in the teeth, exposing the underlying dentin and pulp tissues. It can result in pain, sensitivity, inflammation, and infection of the affected teeth and surrounding tissues.
Children with Scardovia wiggsiae infection may experience difficulty chewing, speaking, and swallowing due to the compromised integrity of their teeth. The condition can also impact their nutrition, growth, and development, as they may avoid certain foods and nutrients due to dental pain and sensitivity.
Furthermore, Scardovia wiggsiae infection in primary dentition can also increase the risk of dental caries in permanent dentition. If not addressed promptly, the infection can have long-term consequences on the oral health of affected individuals.
Diagnosis of Scardovia wiggsiae involves a combination of selective culture methods and molecular analysis. Here are the steps for diagnosing Scardovia wiggsiae:
Sample Collection: Oral samples, such as saliva, plaque, gingival crevicular fluid (GCF), or tongue swabs, are collected from the subjects. These samples are stored in appropriate transport media at 4°C until further processing.
Culture method: A selective medium for Scardovia wiggsiae, such as modified Mitis-Salivarius agar (mMSA), is prepared. The mMSA contains specific ingredients, including 20% sucrose, 0.002% crystal violet, & 0.2% potassium tellurite which inhibit the growth of most oral bacteria, except for Scardovia wiggsiae and some Streptococcus species. The oral samples are then inoculated onto the mMSA plates and incubated anaerobically at 37°C for 48 hours.
After incubation, the appearance of colonies on the mMSA plates is observed. Scardovia wiggsiae colonies typically appear small (0.5-1 mm in diameter), black or dark brown, and shiny. The colonies may have a smooth or rough surface.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Analysis: For a more precise diagnosis, molecular PCR analysis is performed. DNA is extracted from the collected plaque and dentinal caries samples using SDS/Triton bacterial lysis buffer. The extracted DNA is then quantified using a QUBIT Fluorometer to determine the total DNA concentration. PCR is carried out using specific primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene of Scardovia wiggsiae. The presence of the bacterium in the samples is confirmed if the 16S rRNA gene-specific region is successfully amplified.
Electrophoresis: The amplified region of the 16S rRNA gene is verified by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gels stained using ethidium bromide & later visualized under UV light. This step helps to ensure the specificity of the PCR product.
16S Metagenomic Analysis: To obtain a broader understanding of the oral microbiota and detect S. wiggsiae, a 16S metagenomic analysis is conducted. DNA from the samples is amplified using PCR with primers targeting the hypervariable region V6 of the 16S rRNA gene. The PCR products are then processed to generate amplicon libraries for subsequent emulsion PCR.
Emulsion PCR and Sequencing: Emulsion PCR is performed to create barcoded libraries of the amplicons. The DNA sequences are then obtained using a next-generation sequencing platform like the Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine (PGM). The obtained sequences are analyzed using appropriate software to identify the presence and prevalence of Scardovia wiggsiae in the samples.
Brushing teeth daily twice with fluoride toothpaste & flossing daily help remove plaque, the biofilm formed by Scardovia wiggsiae, and other cariogenic bacteria. Plaque provides nutrients and protection for the bacteria, leading to acid production and enamel demineralization.
Minimizing the consumption of sugary foods & drinks, especially between meals and before bedtime, deprives Scardovia wiggsiae of a source of energy for acid production and biofilm formation. Lowering the oral pH and weakening the enamel is also prevented.
Using oral or topical probiotics can help modulate the oral microbiota and inhibit the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae and other cariogenic bacteria. Probiotics may also enhance the host immune response and promote oral health.
Some antimicrobial agents, like xylitol, chlorhexidine, or essential oils, can reduce the growth and activity of Scardovia wiggsiae and other cariogenic bacteria. These agents are available in various forms, such as mouthwash, gel, gum, or candy. However, professionals should guide their usage due to potential adverse effects.
Scardovia wiggsiae infection has been associated with early childhood caries (ECC), a severe form of tooth decay that affects young children. The epidemiological aspects of Scardovia wiggsiae infection reveal its prevalence and incidence rates in different populations and regions.Studies have proved a significantly higher prevalence of Scardovia wiggsiae in dental plaque and saliva samples from children with ECC than in caries-free children.
One study reported a prevalence of 85.7% in dental plaque samples from children with ECC, while the prevalence was only 28.6% in samples from caries-free children. Similarly, another study found that Scardovia wiggsiae was detected in 72% of saliva samples from children with ECC, whereas it was found in only 16% of samples from caries-free children.
The incidence of ECC varies depending on factors such as region, age group, socioeconomic status, and oral hygiene practices. Incidence rates have been estimated to be 12.9 per 100 person-years in children aged 1-5 years in India and 23.8 per 100 person-years in children aged 2-5 years in the United States.
Accurate reporting of ECC cases and Scardovia wiggsiae infections can be challenging and may only sometimes reflect the true magnitude of the problem. Studies have shown that many ECC cases still need to be reported to national oral health surveillance systems, indicating potential underreporting.
Scardovia wiggsiae has been quantified and compared to its levels and other oral bacteria in ECC and caries-free samples. The results have shown that Scardovia wiggsiae has a higher mean relative abundance, mean absolute abundance, and detection frequency in ECC samples than in caries-free samples, suggesting its association with the disease.
Scardovia wiggsiae infection and ECC are influenced by various factors, including dietary habits, oral hygiene practices, fluoride exposure, maternal oral health status, genetic susceptibility, and certain medical conditions like chronic kidney disease on dialysis.
Kingdom: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Bifidobacteriales
Family: Bifidobacteriaceae
Genus:Scardovia
Species:Scardovia wiggsiae
Scardovia wiggsiae is an acid-tolerant, anaerobic, gram-positive bacillus capable of fermenting several types of carbohydrates without generating gas.
The bacterium’s size can vary, with measurements of approximately 0.6–0.7 μm in width and 1.6–4 μm in length.
Scardovia wiggsiae can arrange in single cells, pairs, or short chains. It is a non-motile and non-spore-forming bacterium; it has a thick peptidoglycan layer in its cell wall, providing structural support and protection.
S. wiggsiae has a G+C content of 52.9% in its genome, which refers to the percentage of guanine and cytosine nucleotides in its DNA.
Scardovia wiggsiae has various virulent proteins contributing to its relationship with ECC and cariogenic characteristics. The ScaA protein is one of the virulent proteins expressed by S. wiggsiae. This surface protein is related to one discovered in Streptococcus mutans, a significant cariogenic bacterium. S. wiggsiae can stick to tooth surfaces & form biofilms in the presence of the ScaA protein, aiding colonization & survival in the oral cavity.
Scardovia wiggsiae has unique genes that contribute to its virulence and cariogenicity. One such genetic mechanism that improves the bacterium’s capacity to thrive in the oral environment is the F6PPK shunt. The F6PPK shunt allows Scardovia wiggsiae to skip the lactate-formate pathway, which contains fluoride-sensitive enolase activity, & instead directs metabolic flux to the fluoride-tolerant acetate pathway. This adaptation enables the bacterium to resist the presence of fluoride, which is a frequent component of dental hygiene products & can limit the growth of cariogenic bacteria.
Scardovia wiggsiae has a thick peptidoglycan coating in its cell wall, providing structural assistance. This peptidoglycan layer primarily comprises the A4α L-Lys-Ser-Glu peptide linkage, a particular amino acid sequence present in cross-linking peptides. Within this layer, however, there can be some substitution of L-lysine for L-ornithine with partial replacement of serine for threonine. Peptidoglycan, or murein, is a unique property of bacterial cell walls made up of repeated units of amino sugars connected by short peptide chains.
Two crucial enzymes are involved in the F6PPK shunt: fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase (F6PPK) and xylulose-5-phosphate phosphoketolase (X5PPK). The corresponding genes encoding these enzymes are f6ppk and x5ppk, respectively. Through the F6PPK shunt, Scardovia wiggsiae can efficiently utilize available nutrients in the oral environment and optimize its metabolic pathways to favor its cariogenic potential.
Regarding strains, specific isolates of Scardovia wiggsiae have been associated with ECC in different regions. For instance, strain F0424 was isolated from a child with ECC in Japan, while strains C1A-55, C1A-80, C1A-79, and C1A-81 were isolated from children with ECC in the United Kingdom.
Scardovia wiggsiae has been associated with severe episodes of early childhood caries (ECC), commonly called baby bottle tooth decay. The pathogenesis of S. wiggsiae involves several key factors. Firstly, like other cariogenic bacteria, it produces acids through the fermentation of carbohydrates in the oral cavity. These acids lead to the demineralization of tooth enamel, ultimately causing the formation of cavities.
Additionally, Scardovia wiggsiae can form biofilms on tooth surfaces. Biofilms of Scardovia are embedded in a protective matrix, making them more resistant to host defense mechanisms and antimicrobial treatments. Forming biofilms allows S. wiggsiae to persist and thrive in the oral environment, contributing to its pathogenic potential.
Studies have suggested that Scardovia wiggsiae may interact symbiotically with other cariogenic bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans. This collaboration could create a more cariogenic environment in the oral cavity, exacerbating the risk of dental caries.
Dietary factors are crucially responsible for the growth and activity of S. wiggsiae. Frequent consumption of fermentable carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, provides a food source for the bacterium, promoting its proliferation and acid production.
The susceptibility to dental caries is influenced by bacterial factors and the host’s characteristics. Disadvantaged ethnic and socioeconomic groups have been shown to have a higher caries incidence. Scardovia wiggsiae has been detected in a significant proportion of children with ECC and adults with advanced carious lesions, highlighting its role in the progression of the disease.
The primary natural barrier against Scardovia wiggsiae is the mucous membranes that line the body’s internal cavities, including the mouth, nose, throat, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. These mucous membranes secrete mucus, a physical barrier that traps and removes the S. wiggsiae from these surfaces. Mucus can effectively prevent the attachment and colonization of S. wiggsiae, thus reducing the risk of infection.
The mucous membranes also produce antimicrobial substances, such as lysozyme and lactoferrin. These substances can kill or inhibit the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae, providing an additional layer of defense; Lysozyme can break down the cell walls of certain bacteria, while lactoferrin can sequester iron, which is essential for bacterial growth, thus limiting the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae.
Nonspecific immune responses are critical in fighting against Scardovia wiggsiae. Phagocytic cells, which include macrophages and neutrophils, are specialized immune cells capable of engulfing and eliminating invading S. wiggsiae. These cells play a crucial role in the early stages of infection, helping to clear the bacterium from the affected tissues.
Research in mice has also shown that Scardovia wiggsiae can contribute to the progression of the periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory condition affecting the gums and supporting structures of the teeth. In response to S. wiggsiae, the host induces neutrophil infiltration, proinflammatory cytokine secretion, osteoclast activation (cells involved in bone destruction), and alveolar bone destruction.
In the presence of Scardovia wiggsiae, inflammatory responses are induced. These responses include increased blood flow, swelling, heat, & discomfort at the site of infection. Inflammation acts as a defense mechanism, slowing the progress of infection and promoting healing. Cytokines, chemical messengers that coordinate the immune response, are released by inflammatory cells. These cytokines stimulate the immune response to S. wiggsiae by activating other immune cells like T cells & B cells.
Scardovia wiggsiae is a bacterium found in the human oral cavity and clinical material, and it has been linked to a condition known as early childhood caries (ECC), a severe form of tooth decay that affects young children.Clinical manifestations of Scardovia wiggsiae infection may include the presence of white spot lesions on the enamel surface of the teeth.
These white spots indicate demineralization and loss of tooth structure due to the acidic byproducts produced by the bacterium. As the disease progresses, it leads to cavitation or the formation of holes in the teeth, exposing the underlying dentin and pulp tissues. It can result in pain, sensitivity, inflammation, and infection of the affected teeth and surrounding tissues.
Children with Scardovia wiggsiae infection may experience difficulty chewing, speaking, and swallowing due to the compromised integrity of their teeth. The condition can also impact their nutrition, growth, and development, as they may avoid certain foods and nutrients due to dental pain and sensitivity.
Furthermore, Scardovia wiggsiae infection in primary dentition can also increase the risk of dental caries in permanent dentition. If not addressed promptly, the infection can have long-term consequences on the oral health of affected individuals.
Diagnosis of Scardovia wiggsiae involves a combination of selective culture methods and molecular analysis. Here are the steps for diagnosing Scardovia wiggsiae:
Sample Collection: Oral samples, such as saliva, plaque, gingival crevicular fluid (GCF), or tongue swabs, are collected from the subjects. These samples are stored in appropriate transport media at 4°C until further processing.
Culture method: A selective medium for Scardovia wiggsiae, such as modified Mitis-Salivarius agar (mMSA), is prepared. The mMSA contains specific ingredients, including 20% sucrose, 0.002% crystal violet, & 0.2% potassium tellurite which inhibit the growth of most oral bacteria, except for Scardovia wiggsiae and some Streptococcus species. The oral samples are then inoculated onto the mMSA plates and incubated anaerobically at 37°C for 48 hours.
After incubation, the appearance of colonies on the mMSA plates is observed. Scardovia wiggsiae colonies typically appear small (0.5-1 mm in diameter), black or dark brown, and shiny. The colonies may have a smooth or rough surface.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Analysis: For a more precise diagnosis, molecular PCR analysis is performed. DNA is extracted from the collected plaque and dentinal caries samples using SDS/Triton bacterial lysis buffer. The extracted DNA is then quantified using a QUBIT Fluorometer to determine the total DNA concentration. PCR is carried out using specific primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene of Scardovia wiggsiae. The presence of the bacterium in the samples is confirmed if the 16S rRNA gene-specific region is successfully amplified.
Electrophoresis: The amplified region of the 16S rRNA gene is verified by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gels stained using ethidium bromide & later visualized under UV light. This step helps to ensure the specificity of the PCR product.
16S Metagenomic Analysis: To obtain a broader understanding of the oral microbiota and detect S. wiggsiae, a 16S metagenomic analysis is conducted. DNA from the samples is amplified using PCR with primers targeting the hypervariable region V6 of the 16S rRNA gene. The PCR products are then processed to generate amplicon libraries for subsequent emulsion PCR.
Emulsion PCR and Sequencing: Emulsion PCR is performed to create barcoded libraries of the amplicons. The DNA sequences are then obtained using a next-generation sequencing platform like the Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine (PGM). The obtained sequences are analyzed using appropriate software to identify the presence and prevalence of Scardovia wiggsiae in the samples.
Brushing teeth daily twice with fluoride toothpaste & flossing daily help remove plaque, the biofilm formed by Scardovia wiggsiae, and other cariogenic bacteria. Plaque provides nutrients and protection for the bacteria, leading to acid production and enamel demineralization.
Minimizing the consumption of sugary foods & drinks, especially between meals and before bedtime, deprives Scardovia wiggsiae of a source of energy for acid production and biofilm formation. Lowering the oral pH and weakening the enamel is also prevented.
Using oral or topical probiotics can help modulate the oral microbiota and inhibit the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae and other cariogenic bacteria. Probiotics may also enhance the host immune response and promote oral health.
Some antimicrobial agents, like xylitol, chlorhexidine, or essential oils, can reduce the growth and activity of Scardovia wiggsiae and other cariogenic bacteria. These agents are available in various forms, such as mouthwash, gel, gum, or candy. However, professionals should guide their usage due to potential adverse effects.
Scardovia wiggsiae infection has been associated with early childhood caries (ECC), a severe form of tooth decay that affects young children. The epidemiological aspects of Scardovia wiggsiae infection reveal its prevalence and incidence rates in different populations and regions.Studies have proved a significantly higher prevalence of Scardovia wiggsiae in dental plaque and saliva samples from children with ECC than in caries-free children.
One study reported a prevalence of 85.7% in dental plaque samples from children with ECC, while the prevalence was only 28.6% in samples from caries-free children. Similarly, another study found that Scardovia wiggsiae was detected in 72% of saliva samples from children with ECC, whereas it was found in only 16% of samples from caries-free children.
The incidence of ECC varies depending on factors such as region, age group, socioeconomic status, and oral hygiene practices. Incidence rates have been estimated to be 12.9 per 100 person-years in children aged 1-5 years in India and 23.8 per 100 person-years in children aged 2-5 years in the United States.
Accurate reporting of ECC cases and Scardovia wiggsiae infections can be challenging and may only sometimes reflect the true magnitude of the problem. Studies have shown that many ECC cases still need to be reported to national oral health surveillance systems, indicating potential underreporting.
Scardovia wiggsiae has been quantified and compared to its levels and other oral bacteria in ECC and caries-free samples. The results have shown that Scardovia wiggsiae has a higher mean relative abundance, mean absolute abundance, and detection frequency in ECC samples than in caries-free samples, suggesting its association with the disease.
Scardovia wiggsiae infection and ECC are influenced by various factors, including dietary habits, oral hygiene practices, fluoride exposure, maternal oral health status, genetic susceptibility, and certain medical conditions like chronic kidney disease on dialysis.
Kingdom: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Bifidobacteriales
Family: Bifidobacteriaceae
Genus:Scardovia
Species:Scardovia wiggsiae
Scardovia wiggsiae is an acid-tolerant, anaerobic, gram-positive bacillus capable of fermenting several types of carbohydrates without generating gas.
The bacterium’s size can vary, with measurements of approximately 0.6–0.7 μm in width and 1.6–4 μm in length.
Scardovia wiggsiae can arrange in single cells, pairs, or short chains. It is a non-motile and non-spore-forming bacterium; it has a thick peptidoglycan layer in its cell wall, providing structural support and protection.
S. wiggsiae has a G+C content of 52.9% in its genome, which refers to the percentage of guanine and cytosine nucleotides in its DNA.
Scardovia wiggsiae has various virulent proteins contributing to its relationship with ECC and cariogenic characteristics. The ScaA protein is one of the virulent proteins expressed by S. wiggsiae. This surface protein is related to one discovered in Streptococcus mutans, a significant cariogenic bacterium. S. wiggsiae can stick to tooth surfaces & form biofilms in the presence of the ScaA protein, aiding colonization & survival in the oral cavity.
Scardovia wiggsiae has unique genes that contribute to its virulence and cariogenicity. One such genetic mechanism that improves the bacterium’s capacity to thrive in the oral environment is the F6PPK shunt. The F6PPK shunt allows Scardovia wiggsiae to skip the lactate-formate pathway, which contains fluoride-sensitive enolase activity, & instead directs metabolic flux to the fluoride-tolerant acetate pathway. This adaptation enables the bacterium to resist the presence of fluoride, which is a frequent component of dental hygiene products & can limit the growth of cariogenic bacteria.
Scardovia wiggsiae has a thick peptidoglycan coating in its cell wall, providing structural assistance. This peptidoglycan layer primarily comprises the A4α L-Lys-Ser-Glu peptide linkage, a particular amino acid sequence present in cross-linking peptides. Within this layer, however, there can be some substitution of L-lysine for L-ornithine with partial replacement of serine for threonine. Peptidoglycan, or murein, is a unique property of bacterial cell walls made up of repeated units of amino sugars connected by short peptide chains.
Two crucial enzymes are involved in the F6PPK shunt: fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase (F6PPK) and xylulose-5-phosphate phosphoketolase (X5PPK). The corresponding genes encoding these enzymes are f6ppk and x5ppk, respectively. Through the F6PPK shunt, Scardovia wiggsiae can efficiently utilize available nutrients in the oral environment and optimize its metabolic pathways to favor its cariogenic potential.
Regarding strains, specific isolates of Scardovia wiggsiae have been associated with ECC in different regions. For instance, strain F0424 was isolated from a child with ECC in Japan, while strains C1A-55, C1A-80, C1A-79, and C1A-81 were isolated from children with ECC in the United Kingdom.
Scardovia wiggsiae has been associated with severe episodes of early childhood caries (ECC), commonly called baby bottle tooth decay. The pathogenesis of S. wiggsiae involves several key factors. Firstly, like other cariogenic bacteria, it produces acids through the fermentation of carbohydrates in the oral cavity. These acids lead to the demineralization of tooth enamel, ultimately causing the formation of cavities.
Additionally, Scardovia wiggsiae can form biofilms on tooth surfaces. Biofilms of Scardovia are embedded in a protective matrix, making them more resistant to host defense mechanisms and antimicrobial treatments. Forming biofilms allows S. wiggsiae to persist and thrive in the oral environment, contributing to its pathogenic potential.
Studies have suggested that Scardovia wiggsiae may interact symbiotically with other cariogenic bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans. This collaboration could create a more cariogenic environment in the oral cavity, exacerbating the risk of dental caries.
Dietary factors are crucially responsible for the growth and activity of S. wiggsiae. Frequent consumption of fermentable carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, provides a food source for the bacterium, promoting its proliferation and acid production.
The susceptibility to dental caries is influenced by bacterial factors and the host’s characteristics. Disadvantaged ethnic and socioeconomic groups have been shown to have a higher caries incidence. Scardovia wiggsiae has been detected in a significant proportion of children with ECC and adults with advanced carious lesions, highlighting its role in the progression of the disease.
The primary natural barrier against Scardovia wiggsiae is the mucous membranes that line the body’s internal cavities, including the mouth, nose, throat, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. These mucous membranes secrete mucus, a physical barrier that traps and removes the S. wiggsiae from these surfaces. Mucus can effectively prevent the attachment and colonization of S. wiggsiae, thus reducing the risk of infection.
The mucous membranes also produce antimicrobial substances, such as lysozyme and lactoferrin. These substances can kill or inhibit the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae, providing an additional layer of defense; Lysozyme can break down the cell walls of certain bacteria, while lactoferrin can sequester iron, which is essential for bacterial growth, thus limiting the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae.
Nonspecific immune responses are critical in fighting against Scardovia wiggsiae. Phagocytic cells, which include macrophages and neutrophils, are specialized immune cells capable of engulfing and eliminating invading S. wiggsiae. These cells play a crucial role in the early stages of infection, helping to clear the bacterium from the affected tissues.
Research in mice has also shown that Scardovia wiggsiae can contribute to the progression of the periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory condition affecting the gums and supporting structures of the teeth. In response to S. wiggsiae, the host induces neutrophil infiltration, proinflammatory cytokine secretion, osteoclast activation (cells involved in bone destruction), and alveolar bone destruction.
In the presence of Scardovia wiggsiae, inflammatory responses are induced. These responses include increased blood flow, swelling, heat, & discomfort at the site of infection. Inflammation acts as a defense mechanism, slowing the progress of infection and promoting healing. Cytokines, chemical messengers that coordinate the immune response, are released by inflammatory cells. These cytokines stimulate the immune response to S. wiggsiae by activating other immune cells like T cells & B cells.
Scardovia wiggsiae is a bacterium found in the human oral cavity and clinical material, and it has been linked to a condition known as early childhood caries (ECC), a severe form of tooth decay that affects young children.Clinical manifestations of Scardovia wiggsiae infection may include the presence of white spot lesions on the enamel surface of the teeth.
These white spots indicate demineralization and loss of tooth structure due to the acidic byproducts produced by the bacterium. As the disease progresses, it leads to cavitation or the formation of holes in the teeth, exposing the underlying dentin and pulp tissues. It can result in pain, sensitivity, inflammation, and infection of the affected teeth and surrounding tissues.
Children with Scardovia wiggsiae infection may experience difficulty chewing, speaking, and swallowing due to the compromised integrity of their teeth. The condition can also impact their nutrition, growth, and development, as they may avoid certain foods and nutrients due to dental pain and sensitivity.
Furthermore, Scardovia wiggsiae infection in primary dentition can also increase the risk of dental caries in permanent dentition. If not addressed promptly, the infection can have long-term consequences on the oral health of affected individuals.
Diagnosis of Scardovia wiggsiae involves a combination of selective culture methods and molecular analysis. Here are the steps for diagnosing Scardovia wiggsiae:
Sample Collection: Oral samples, such as saliva, plaque, gingival crevicular fluid (GCF), or tongue swabs, are collected from the subjects. These samples are stored in appropriate transport media at 4°C until further processing.
Culture method: A selective medium for Scardovia wiggsiae, such as modified Mitis-Salivarius agar (mMSA), is prepared. The mMSA contains specific ingredients, including 20% sucrose, 0.002% crystal violet, & 0.2% potassium tellurite which inhibit the growth of most oral bacteria, except for Scardovia wiggsiae and some Streptococcus species. The oral samples are then inoculated onto the mMSA plates and incubated anaerobically at 37°C for 48 hours.
After incubation, the appearance of colonies on the mMSA plates is observed. Scardovia wiggsiae colonies typically appear small (0.5-1 mm in diameter), black or dark brown, and shiny. The colonies may have a smooth or rough surface.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Analysis: For a more precise diagnosis, molecular PCR analysis is performed. DNA is extracted from the collected plaque and dentinal caries samples using SDS/Triton bacterial lysis buffer. The extracted DNA is then quantified using a QUBIT Fluorometer to determine the total DNA concentration. PCR is carried out using specific primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene of Scardovia wiggsiae. The presence of the bacterium in the samples is confirmed if the 16S rRNA gene-specific region is successfully amplified.
Electrophoresis: The amplified region of the 16S rRNA gene is verified by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gels stained using ethidium bromide & later visualized under UV light. This step helps to ensure the specificity of the PCR product.
16S Metagenomic Analysis: To obtain a broader understanding of the oral microbiota and detect S. wiggsiae, a 16S metagenomic analysis is conducted. DNA from the samples is amplified using PCR with primers targeting the hypervariable region V6 of the 16S rRNA gene. The PCR products are then processed to generate amplicon libraries for subsequent emulsion PCR.
Emulsion PCR and Sequencing: Emulsion PCR is performed to create barcoded libraries of the amplicons. The DNA sequences are then obtained using a next-generation sequencing platform like the Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine (PGM). The obtained sequences are analyzed using appropriate software to identify the presence and prevalence of Scardovia wiggsiae in the samples.
Brushing teeth daily twice with fluoride toothpaste & flossing daily help remove plaque, the biofilm formed by Scardovia wiggsiae, and other cariogenic bacteria. Plaque provides nutrients and protection for the bacteria, leading to acid production and enamel demineralization.
Minimizing the consumption of sugary foods & drinks, especially between meals and before bedtime, deprives Scardovia wiggsiae of a source of energy for acid production and biofilm formation. Lowering the oral pH and weakening the enamel is also prevented.
Using oral or topical probiotics can help modulate the oral microbiota and inhibit the growth of Scardovia wiggsiae and other cariogenic bacteria. Probiotics may also enhance the host immune response and promote oral health.
Some antimicrobial agents, like xylitol, chlorhexidine, or essential oils, can reduce the growth and activity of Scardovia wiggsiae and other cariogenic bacteria. These agents are available in various forms, such as mouthwash, gel, gum, or candy. However, professionals should guide their usage due to potential adverse effects.
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